Ensuring the safety and efficiency of Autonomous Vehicles (AVs) necessitates highly accurate perception, especially for lane detection and lane-change manoeuvres. Among object detection frameworks, “You Only Look Once” (YOLO) algorithms have emerged as prominent contenders due to their rapid inference and commendable accuracy. However, the broad spectrum of YOLO variants and their applications in complex, real-world environments remain insufficiently mapped, necessitating a more integrative and critical perspective than what is typically offered by surveys. This comprehensive review synthesizes theoretical foundations, architectural innovations, and empirical evaluations of YOLO-based algorithms in AV-related tasks. It not only highlights key findings—such as the notable gains in real-time detection and adaptability to a range of driving conditions—but also explicitly identifies persistent gaps and limitations. These include difficulties in detecting subtle or degraded lane markings, handling unpredictable environmental factors like adverse weather and varied lighting, mitigating adversarial perturbations, and scaling effectively across diverse datasets and geographic regions. By critically examining these vulnerabilities, we illuminate the opportunities for refining YOLO's training paradigms, optimizing model architectures, incorporating sensor fusion, and fostering universally applicable datasets. The implications of addressing these gaps extend beyond mere technical refinements. Proactively tackling YOLO's current challenges can expedite the realization of safer, more robust, and globally adaptable AV navigation systems. In doing so, this review provides clear, actionable insights for researchers, engineers, and policymakers, guiding them toward strategic innovations that will strengthen AV perception and contribute to more reliable, future-ready transportation solutions.

In this paper, a novel framework, MixerSENet, is introduced for hyperspectral image (HSI) classification, designed to address the challenges of computational efficiency and limited labeled data. The proposed model processes hyperspectral image patches while maintaining consistent size and resolution throughout the network, effectively decoupling the mixing of spatial and channel dimensions. Notably, MixerSENet is lightweight and computationally efficient, requiring fewer parameters compared to traditional models, making it suitable for resource-constrained environments. A squeeze and excitation block is incorporated into the model to refine feature extraction, enhancing the network’s ability to capture more informative features. Experimental results on two benchmark datasets demonstrate that MixerSENet achieves superior performance, reaching an overall accuracy (OA) of 82.47% on Houston13 dataset and 96.70% on the Qingyun dataset, outperforming state-of-the-art methods including 3D-CNN, HybridKAN, HSIFormer, SimPoolFormer, and MorphMamba. Furthermore, a detailed analysis of computational efficiency shows that MixerSENet achieves a favorable balance between accuracy and efficiency, with only 53,146 parameters and an low inference time, confirming its practicality for real-world applications. At publication, source code will be publicly available at https://github.com/mqalkhatib/MixerSENet.

The growing popularity of vision transformers (ViTs) in remote sensing image classification is due to their ability to effectively capture long-range dependencies. However, their high computational cost and memory footprint limit their applicability, particularly for small-scale datasets and resource-constrained environments. To address these challenges, we propose the multiscale multihead compact convolutional transformer (MSHCCT), a lightweight yet powerful model that integrates convolutional tokenization with small-scale ViTs to enhance multiscale feature representation while maintaining computational efficiency. Despite a modest increase in parameters and training time, MSHCCT achieves superior classification accuracy and robustness on high-resolution aerial scenes. Importantly, our approach eliminates the need for model pretraining, additional datasets, or multisensor data fusion, ensuring a computationally efficient and practical solution for remote sensing applications. The code will be made publicly available athttps://github.com/aj1365/MSHCCT

Given the exceptional effectiveness of deep Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs) in computer vision, there has been a recent surge of interest in employing CNNs for various applications in image classification. Additionally, scientists are exploring the potential of vision transformers for Earth observation applications, owing to their recent tremendous success. However, a major challenge with vision transformers is their increased demand for training data compared to CNN classifiers. Furthermore, vision transformers exhibit quadratic complexity and necessitate substantial hardware resources. In the context of PolSAR image classification, we propose the PolSARConvMixer—a fundamental framework that segregates the mixing of spatial and channel dimensions, maintains uniform size and resolution across the network and directly processes PolSAR image patches as input. Our experiments on two PolSAR data benchmarks, namely Flevoland and San Francisco, demonstrate the significant superiority of the developed PolSARConvMixer over several other algorithms, including AlexNet, ResNet, FNet, a 2D CNN, and PolSARFormer.

Traditional Adaptive Cruise Control (ACC) systems often struggle to dynamically adapt to rapidly changing traffic conditions, resulting in suboptimal performance. Additionally, with fuel consumption emerging as a critical consideration alongside safety, there is a pressing need for more advanced solutions. This paper presents a novel approach to address these challenges by integrating Fuzzy ACC with Model Predictive Control , denoted as FACMPC. This integration aims to enhance both the longitudinal safety of AVs and fuel efficiency by considering real-time traffic conditions. The FACMPC system utilizes fuzzy logic inside the MPC, adaptively generates controller's weighting factors, allowing the system to adapt instantly to varying traffic environments and driving circumstances. The findings show that this adaptation improves the balance between driving safety, efficiency, and comfort. Additionally, three interruption scenarios, Alpha, Beta and Gama, are examined. In Alpha, the study evaluates the sensitivity of the FACMPC to disturbances by applying band-limited white noise to the lead vehicle velocity. In Beta, the AV experiences a loss of the lead vehicle velocity signal for a defined period, prompting safety considerations and assumptions. The Gama scenario includes a sensitivity analysis to account for variations and uncertainties in parameters by considering a range of ±5% around the nominal values for four key parameters: road slope, wind speed , wind direction, and rolling resistance. The findings indicate that the proposed controller's mean fuel consumption is 8.110, only a 3.21% increase over the nominal, compared to a 7.03% increase for the conventional ACC, demonstrating greater robustness against uncertainties.

Due to its capacity to recognize detailed spectral differences, hyperspectral data have been extensively used for precise Land Use Land Cover (LULC) mapping. However, recent multi-modal methods have shown their superior classification performance over the algorithms that use single data sets. On the other hand, Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs) are models extensively utilized for the hierarchical extraction of features. Vision transformers (ViTs), through a self-attention mechanism, have recently achieved superior modeling of global contextual information compared to CNNs. However, to harness their image classification strength, ViTs require substantial training datasets. In cases where the available training data is limited, current advanced multi-layer perceptrons (MLPs) can provide viable alternatives to both deep CNNs and ViTs. In this paper, we developed the SGU-MLP, a deep learning algorithm that effectively combines MLPs and spatial gating units (SGUs) for precise Land Use Land Cover (LULC) mapping using multi-modal data from multi-spectral, LiDAR, and hyperspectral data. Results illustrated the superiority of the developed SGU-MLP classification algorithm over several CNN and CNN-ViT-based models, including HybridSN, ResNet, iFormer, EfficientFormer, and CoAtNet. The SGU-MLP classification model consistently outperformed the benchmark CNN and CNN-ViT-based algorithms. The code will be made publicly available at https: //github.com/aj1365/SGUMLP.

Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs) are employed extensively in remote sensing due to their capacity to capture intricate features from a broad range of object patterns, irrespective of object size, shape or color. These networks excel at extracting high-frequency spectral information such as angles, edges and outlines. The classification boundary zone, however, becomes hazy for CNNs because they learn characteristics by means of a fixed shape kernel concentrated on the central pixel, and can perform poorly in image classification at class boundaries. Additionally, CNNs are not designed to capture global relations. Thus, in this letter, we propose an Attention Graph Convolutional Network (Attention-GCN) as a solution to the aforementioned shortcomings. The developed model illustrated a high level of superiority over several CNN and ViT-based models. For example, in the Augsburg data benchmark, the developed algorithm exhibited an average accuracy of 61.11%, substantially outperforming other models such as HybridSN, iFormer, Efficient Former, GCN, CoAtNet, 2D-CNN, 3D-CNN, and ResNet by approximately 9, 13, 14, 15, 18, 24, 25 and 29 percentage points, respectively. The code will be made publicly available at https://github.com/aj1365/AGCN.

In the domain of remote sensing image interpretation, road extraction from high-resolution aerial imagery has already been a hot research topic. Although deep CNNs have presented excellent results for semantic segmentation, the efficiency and capabilities of vision transformers are yet to be fully researched. As such, for accurate road extraction, a deep semantic segmentation neural network that utilizes the abilities of residual learning, HetConvs, UNet, and vision transformers, which is called ResUNetFormer, is proposed in this letter. The developed ResUNetFormer is evaluated on various cutting-edge deep learning-based road extraction techniques on the public Massachusetts road dataset. Statistical and visual results demonstrate the superiority of the ResUNetFormer over the state-of-the-art CNNs and vision transformers for segmentation. The code will be made available publicly at https://github.com/aj1365/ResUNetFormer.

Soil organic carbon (SOC) constitutes a fundamental component of terrestrial ecosystem functionality, playing a pivotal role in nutrient cycling, hydrological balance, and erosion mitigation. Precise mapping of SOC distribution is imperative for the quantification of ecosystem services, notably carbon sequestration and soil fertility enhancement. Digital soil mapping (DSM) leverages statistical models and advanced technologies, including machine learning (ML), to accurately map soil properties, such as SOC, utilizing diverse data sources like satellite imagery, topography, remote sensing indices, and climate series. Within the domain of ML, self-supervised learning (SSL), which exploits unlabeled data, has gained prominence in recent years. This study introduces a novel approach that aims to learn the geographical link between multimodal features via self-supervised contrastive learning, employing pretrained Vision Transformers (ViT) for image inputs and Transformers for climate data, before fine-tuning the model with ground reference samples. The proposed approach has undergone rigorous testing on two distinct large-scale datasets, with results indicating its superiority over traditional supervised learning models, which depends solely on labeled data. Furthermore, through the utilization of various evaluation metrics (e.g., root-mean-square error (RMSE), mean absolute error (MAE), concordance correlation coefficient (CCC), etc.), the proposed model exhibits higher accuracy when compared to other conventional ML algorithms like random forest and gradient boosting. This model is a robust tool for predicting SOC and contributes to the advancement of DSM techniques, thereby facilitating land management and decision-making processes based on accurate information.

The successes of attention-driven deep models like the Vision Transformer (ViT) have sparked interest in cross-domain exploration. However, current transformer-based techniques in remote sensing primarily focus on single-modal data, limiting their potential to exploit the growing array of multimodal Earth observation data fully. Enhancing these models for multimodal integration is crucial for comprehensive remote sensing applications. To achieve this, we extend the traditional self-attention mechanism by introducing Cross Hyperspectral and LiDAR (Cross-HL) attention. We present a novel multimodal deep learning framework that effectively fuses remote sensing (RS) data, intending to improve land use and land cover (LULC) recognition. To enhance the accurate exchange of information across different modalities, we fuse their patch projections using the Cross-HL self-attention module. In this process, LiDAR patch tokens serve as queries (Q), while keys (K) and values (V) are derived from HS patch tokens. To demonstrate the superiority of Cross-HL in the proposed multimodal deep learning framework, we conducted extensive experiments on three multimodal RS benchmark datasets: Houston, Trento, and MUUFL. These datasets contain hyperspectral and light detection and ranging (LiDAR) data. The source code for Cross-HL will be made available publicly at https://github.com/AtriSukul1508/Cross-HL.

Autonomous vehicles (AVs) have a significant impact on the expansion of greenhouse gas emissions as well as driving safety. Consequently, ensuring safety while improving the energy efficiency of AVs has gained increasing importance. In this study, we offer an optimal intelligent system (OIS) by applying a multi-objective evolutionary optimization algorithm to an integrated control system, including an Adaptive Cruise Control (ACC) and an Intelligent Energy Management System (IEMS) that augments safety and lessens the energy consumption for Conventional AVs. In this - system, a predictive model is developed by defining the desired acceleration of the ego vehicle. The vehicle then follows a longitudinal path to track the lead vehicle on the same highway lane, ensuring a safe following distance while minimizing tracking errors. Subsequently, an Intelligent Energy Management System (IEMS) is introduced to optimize the torque output of the internal combustion engine, aimed at reducing the energy consumption of the ego vehicle. Additionally, a sensitivity analysis of the ego vehicle is conducted to account for disturbances and signal loss scenarios. In this way, a band-limited white noise is considered for road power demand (RPD) and measuring signal of lead vehicle velocity, simultaneously. Moreover, two different scenarios are designed regarding signal-losing circumstances and interruptions in receiving the signal of lead vehicle velocity. The optimal solutions reveal a strong independence between safety and fuel consumption, showing that their performances significantly affect each other. The optimal solutions reveal a strong interdependence between safety and fuel consumption, showing that their performances significantly affect each other. The results demonstrate that the optimal approach can significantly reduce fuel consumption while maintaining safety and effective collision avoidance performances.

Convolutional neural networks (CNNs) have recently found great attention in image classification since deep CNNs have exhibited excellent performance in computer vision. Owing to their immense success, of late, scientists are exploring the functionality of transformers in Earth observation applications. Nevertheless, the primary issue with transformers is that they demand significantly more training data than CNN classifiers. Thus, the use of these transformers in remote sensing is considered challenging, notably in utilizing polarimetric synthetic aperture radar (PolSAR) data, due to the insufficient number of existing labeled data. In this letter, we develop and propose a vision transformer (ViT)-based framework that utilizes 3-D and 2-D CNNs as feature extractors and, in addition, local window attention (LWA) for the effective classification of PolSAR data. Extensive experimental results demonstrated that the developed modelPolSARFormerobtained better classification accuracy than the state-of-the-art vision Swin Transformer and FNet algorithms. ThePolSARFormeroutperformed the Swin Transformer and FNet by the margin of 5.86% and 17.63%, in terms of average accuracy (AA) in the San Francisco data benchmark. Moreover, the results over the Flevoland dataset illustrated that thePolSARFormerexceeds several other algorithms, including the ResNet (97.49%), Swin Transformer (96.54%), FNet (95.28%), 2-D CNN (94.57%), and AlexNet (91.83%), with a kappa index (KI) of 99.30%. The code will be made available publicly athttps://github.com/aj1365/PolSARFormer.

Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs) have shown promising results in classifying complex remote sensing scenery, particularly in the classification of wetlands. State-of-the-art Natural Language Processing (NLP) algorithms, on the other hand, are transformers. In this paper, we illustrate the effectiveness of the cutting-edge Swin Transformer for the classification of complex wetlands in New Brunswick, Canada. The precision of the proposed transformer is 0.66, 0.71, 0.75, 0.78, 0.82, 0.83, 0.84, 0.90, 0.90, 0.95, and 0.98 for the recognition of shrub, fen, forested wetland, crop, bog, freshwater marsh, coastal marsh, aquatic bed, grass, urban, and water, respectively. Based on the results, with a relatively high level of overall accuracy of slightly less than 80%, the proposed Swin Transformer is highly capable of complex wetland classification.

Shallow convolutional neural networks (CNNs) have successfully been used to classify polarimetric synthetic aperture radar (PolSAR) imagery. However, one drawback of the existing deep CNN-based techniques is that the input PolSAR training data are often insufficient due to their need for a significant number of training data compared to shallow CNN models utilized in PolSAR image classification. In this paper, we propose using Haar wavelet transform in deep CNNs for effective feature extraction to improve the classification accuracy of PolSAR imagery. Based on the results, the proposed deep CNN model obtained better average accuracy in the San Francisco region with an accuracy of 93.3% and produced more homogeneous classification maps with less noise compared to the two much shallower CNN models of AlexNet (87.8%) and a 2D CNN network (91%). The proposed algorithm is efficient and may be applied over large areas to support regional wetland mapping and monitoring activities using PolSAR imagery. The codes are available at (https://github.com/aj1365/DeepCNN_Polsar).

In this paper, model predictive control (MPC) is used for optimal selection of proportional-integral-derivative (PID) controller gains. In conventional tuning methods a history of response error of the system under control in the passed time is measured and used to adjust PID parameters in order to improve the performance of the system in proceeding time. But MPC obviates this characteristic of classic PID. In fact MPC tries to tune the controller by predicting the system's behaviour some time steps ahead. In this way, PID parameters are adjusted before any real error occurs in the system's response. For this purpose, polynomial meta-models based on the evolved group method of data handling neural networks are obtained to simply simulate the time response of the dynamic system. Moreover, a non-dominated sorting genetic algorithm has been used in a multi-objective Pareto optimisation to select the parameters of the MPC which are prediction horizon, control horizon and relation of weight of Δ u and error, to minimise simultaneously two objective functions that are control effort and integral time absolute error of the system response. The results mentioned at the end obviously declare that the proposed method surpasses conventional tuning methods for PID controllers, and Pareto optimal selection of predictive parameters also improves the performance of the introduced method.