Remote magnetic navigation provides a promising approach for improving the maneuverability and safety of surgical tools, such as catheters and endoscopes, in complex anatomies. The lack of existing localization systems compatible with this modality, beyond fluoroscopy and its harmful ionizing radiation, impedes its translation to clinical practice. To address this challenge, we propose a localization method that achieves full pose estimation by superimposing oscillating magnetic fields for localization onto actuation fields generated by an electromagnetic navigation system. The resulting magnetic field is measured using a three-axis magnetic field sensor embedded in the magnetic device to be localized. The method is evaluated on a three-coil system, and simultaneous actuation and localization is demonstrated with a magnetic catheter prototype with a Hall effect sensor embedded at its tip. We demonstrate position estimation with mean accuracy and precision below 1 mm, and orientation estimation with mean errors below 2$^\circ$at 10 Hz in a workspace of 80 × 80 × 60 mm. This contribution aims to advance the clinical adoption of remote magnetic navigation in minimally invasive surgery.

Detecting gait phases with wearables unobtrusively and reliably in real-time is important for clinical gait rehabilitation and early diagnosis of neurological diseases. Due to hardware limitations of microcontrollers in wearable devices (e.g., memory and computation power), reliable real-time gait phase detection on the microcontrollers remains a challenge, especially for long-term real-world free-living gait. In this work, a novel algorithm based on a reduced support vector machine (RSVM) and a finite state machine (FSM) is developed to address this. The RSVM is developed by exploiting the cascaded K-means clustering to reduce the model size and computation time of a standard SVM by 88% and a factor of 36, with only minor degradation in gait phase prediction accuracy of around 4%. For each gait phase prediction from the RSVM, the FSM is designed to validate the prediction and correct misclassifications. The developed algorithm is implemented on a microcontroller of a wearable device and its real-time (on the fly) classification performance is evaluated by twenty healthy subjects walking along a predefined real-world route with uncontrolled free-living gait. It shows a promising real-time performance with an accuracy of 91.51%, a sensitivity of 91.70%, and a specificity of 95.77%. The algorithm also demonstrates its robustness with varying walking conditions.

Variable stiffness catheters typically rely on thermally induced stiffness transitions with a transition temperature above body temperature. This imposes considerable safety limitations for medical applications. In this work, we present a variable stiffness catheter using a hybrid control strategy capable of actively heating and actively cooling the catheter material. The proposed catheter is made of a single biocompatible shape memory polymer, which significantly increases its manufacturability and scalability compared to existing designs. Potentially increased safety is obtained by ensuring a lower-risk compliant state at body temperature while maintaining higher stiffness ranges in actively controlled states. Additionally, the combined use of variable stiffness and magnetic actuation increases the dexterity and steerability of the device compared to existing robotic tools.

Small-scale robots with soft joints and hinges have recently attracted interest because these components allow for more sophisticated locomotion mechanisms. Here, we investigate two different types of nanoscale swimmers as depicted in Figure 1. One consists of a rigid magnetic head linked to a semi-soft tail (1-link swimmer). Another consists of a rigid magnetic head and tail connected by a soft hinge (2-link swimmer). Both swimmers exhibit undulatory locomotion under an applied oscillating magnetic field. The speeds of the swimmers are assessed as a function of the oscillating magnetic field frequency and the sweeping angle. We find that a resonance-like frequency increases as the length decreases, and, in general, the speed increases as the sweeping angle increases. Last, we show that 2-link swimmers can also swim in a corkscrew-like pattern under rotating magnetic fields.

Shape shifting soft microrobots are generated from self-folding hydrogel bilayer structures. The folding conditions are analyzed to develop an optimal strategy for producing desired three-dimensional shapes. We present two different methods for programming magnetization in these microrobots that are variant and invariant to folding. The microrobots can be navigated through user-defined trajectories using rotating magnetic fields, and the morphing in response to temperature changes can be tuned for adaptive behavior. On-demand modulation of the mobility of individual microrobots is demonstrated by morphing their shape using selective near infrared light (NIR) exposure.

The presented microrobotic platform combines the advantages of self-folding NIR light sensitive polymer bilayers, magnetic alginate microbeads, and a 3D manipulation system and introduces a solution for targeted, on-demand drug and cell delivery. First feasibility studies are presented together with the potential of the full design.

This paper presents a new generation of wireless resonant magnetic microactuator (WRMMA) type microrobot, named PolyMite. A polymer is used as a spring material in the design of the PolyMite. Compared with the previous generation of such devices, the use of a polymer, i.e., SU-8, as a spring material enables the design of a stable spring system without a significant increase in stiffness. A speed of over 20 mm/s (40 body lengths per second) was measured when the PolyMite was driven in air. Micromanipulation abilities of the PolyMites in wet environments have also been demonstrated. The agents were capable of transporting microobjects such as light polystyrene beads and heavier glass beads in water. The large output force, remote actuation, and biocompatible outer surface (SU-8 and gold) make the PolyMite an exciting candidate for biomedical applications.

We present a class of Wireless Resonant Magnetic Microactuator (WRMMA) that integrates a polymer spring/body structure with electroplated ferromagnetic masses. The new devices, which we call PolyMites as they are derived from our previous MagMites, are simpler, faster and cheaper to fabricate than the MagMite. Like their predecessor, they are capable of moving on planar surfaces in dry and wet environments. Their improved biocompatibility also extends their potential for biological applications. PolyMites are 500 μm in diameter and 55 μm in height. In air they have attained a speed of 13 mm/s, approximately 26 body lengths per second. PolyMites are capable of micromanipulation on a surface, which is demonstrated by pushing and releasing micro-objects such as polystyrene beads in water.

The propulsion of nano-ferromagnetic objects by means of MRI gradients is a promising approach to enable new forms of therapy. In this work, necessary techniques are presented to make this approach work. This includes path planning algorithms working on MRI data, ferromagnetic artifact imaging and a tracking algorithm which delivers position feedback for the microdevice and a propulsion sequence to enable interleaved magnetic propulsion and imaging. Using a dedicated software environment integrating path-planning methods and real-time tracking, a clinical MRI system is adapted to provide this new functionality for potential controlled interventional targeted therapeutic applications. Through MRI-based sensing analysis, this paper aims to propose a framework to plan a robust pathway to enhance the navigation ability to reach deep locations in human body. The proposed approaches are validated with different experiments.

For the localization of minimally invasive medical devices, such as capsule endoscopes in the human body, ultrasound combines good resolution, minimal adverse health effects, high speed, adequate frame rates, and low cost. In the case of capsule endoscopes, small onboard ultrasonic emitters with minimal power requirements have the potential to provide significantly enhanced localization. We demonstrate for the first time acoustic emission in the kHz range using a wireless emitter based on the actuation principle of the wireless resonant magnetic microactuator developed recently in our institute. Our experiments show good agreement with the theoretical model, and simulations show the potential for high resolution localization.

Retinal vein occlusion is an obstruction of blood flow due to clot formation in the retinal vasculature, and is among the most common causes of vision loss. Currently, the most promising therapy involves injection of t-PA directly into small and delicate retinal vessels. This procedure requires surgical skills at the limits of human performance. In this paper, targeted retinal drug delivery with wireless magnetic microrobots is proposed. We focus on four fundamental issues involved in the development of such a system: biocompatible coating of magnetic microrobots, diffusion-based drug delivery, characterization of forces needed to puncture retinal veins, and wireless magnetic force generation. We conclude that targeted drug delivery with magnetic microrobots is feasible from an engineering perspective, and the idea should now be explored for clinical efficacy.