An avatar is one’s figure of representation within the virtual world. The user-avatar bond is suggested to carry information about who/how the person is in their real life. Discrepancies between an individual’s self and avatar perceptions have been associated with disordered gaming and reduced well-being, requiring assessment. Although several instruments purport to measure UAB, there is no targeted user-avatar discrepancy scale. To address this gap, the user-avatar views of 477 gamers aged between 11–21 years old (meanage = 16.39; SD = 1.6) were assessed across 15 dimensions, each defined by a pair of bipolar adjectives (e.g. strong-weak) rated on a seven-point scale. The optimum combination of scale items was concluded via a three-step validation procedure including (i) exploratory factor analysis, (ii) confirmatory factor analysis, and (iii) item response theory analysis. Findings supported a unifactorial user-avatar discrepancy measure composed of eight items, with social-desirability issues involving strength, physical abilities, and emotionality underpinning participants’ responses.

The impact of an avatar on real-world behaviors of users is known as the Proteus Effect. Different user avatar bond (UAB) aspects, including identifying, immersing, and compensating via the avatar, influence an individual’s Proteus Effect propensity. This study aimed to use machine learning (ML) classifiers to automate the prediction of those likely to experience Proteus Effect, based on their reports of identifying, immersing, and compensating with their avatar. Participants were 565 gamers (Mage = 29.3 years; SD = 10.6), assessed twice, six months apart, using the User-Avatar-Bond Scale and the Proteus Effect Scale. Tuned and untuned ML classifiers showed ML models could accurately identify individuals with higher Proteus Effect propensity, informed by a gamer’s reported UAB, age, and length of gaming involvement, both concurrently and longitudinally (i.e., six months later). Random forests performed better than other MLs, with avatar identification as the strongest predictor. This suggests higher Proteus Effect propensity for those with a stronger user-avatar bond, informing gamified health applications to introduce adaptive behavioral changes via the avatar. Prevention and practice implications are discussed.

This study evaluated whether the metacognitive model of desire thinking, with the addition of the Proteus Effect (i.e. the behavioural transformation of a gamer based on their avatar characteristics), contributes to problematic gaming behaviour. The research project was conducted using an online survey and quantitative research methodology. Inclusion criteria specified the research sample (N = 374) had to be ≥ 18 years and playing the same video game for a minimum of 12 months. The interactions among variables were examined by testing the fit of the proposed model using path analysis. Results indicated the Proteus Effect was directly associated with all variables of the metacognitive model of desire thinking, suggesting the unconscious alteration of behaviour includes desire-related cognitions, impacting self-concept. Of note, the Proteus Effect was negatively associated with problematic gaming, possibly indicating a priortisation of avatar self-concept over player self-concept. These findings support the influence a player’s avatar may have on perpetuating problematic cognitions and behaviour. Furthermore, results supported the interaction of the metacognitive model of desire thinking regarding problematic gaming, aligning with other addictive behaviours. However, limitations of causality, self-report bias, and game genre underscore areas for further research.

Online gaming is part of contemporary life, with a range of influences on gamer’s behaviour. The convergence and alignment of an individual’s attitude and behaviour with features and characteristics of their in-game representation (i.e. their avatar), is conceptualised as the ‘Proteus effect’ (PE). In the massively multiplayer online role-playing game World of Warcraft (WoW), the Draenei (‘exiled ones’) are one type of in-game character faction. In the present study, the interplay between choosing the class of Draenei, experiencing game-related immersion, along with the gamer’s biological gender was examined in relation to PE behaviours among 404 WoW gamers (males = 299; 74%; females = 104; 26%). Participants completed the Proteus Effect Scale and the Immersion sub-scale of the User-Avatar Questionnaire. A hierarchical regression analysis indicated a significant positive association between immersion and PE behaviours. Furthermore, mediation and moderated mediation analyses suggested that being a Draenei was positively associated with the level of game-related immersion, which in turn associated to higher PE behaviours offline, independent of participants’ gender. Results indicate that gamers who are more immersed within the gaming world tend to exhibit elevated PE behaviours. Moreover, being a Draenei in WoW appeared to relate with higher game-immersion experiences, which resulted in higher PE behaviours offline.

Understanding both the risk and protective factors associated with Internet Gaming Disorder (IGD) has been viewed by many in the gaming studies field as an area of research priority. The present study focused on the potential risk and protective effects of user–avatar (game figure) relationship and physical activity (PA), respectively. To address these aims, a cross-sectional and a longitudinal mixed-methods design were combined (comprising both psychological and physiological assessments). A sample of 121 emerging adult gamers (18–29 years) residing in Australia, who played massively multiplayer online games, were assessed in relation to their IGD behaviours using the nine-item Internet Gaming Disorder Scale – Short Form. Additionally, the Proto-Self-Presence (PSP) scale was used to evaluate the extent to which gamers identified with the body of their avatar. Finally, a PA monitor (Fitbit Flex) measured levels of energy consumed during real-world daily activities (active minutes). A number of linear regressions and moderation analyses were conducted. Findings confirmed that PSP functioned as an IGD risk factor and that PA acted protectively, weakening the association between PSP and IGD behaviours. Implications of these findings are discussed in relation to IGD treatment and gaming development aspects.

Internet Addiction (IA) constitutes an excessive Internet use behavior with a significant impact on the user’s well-being. Online flow describes the users’ level of being absorbed by their online activity. The present study investigated age-related, gender, and flow effects on IA in adolescence. The sample comprised 648 adolescents who were assessed twice at age 16 and 18 years. IA was assessed using the Internet Addiction Test and online flow was assessed using the Online Flow Questionnaire. A three-level hierarchical model estimated age-related, gender, and online flow effects on IA symptoms and controlled for clustered random effects. IA symptoms decreased over time (for both genders) with a slower rate in males. Online flow was associated with IA symptoms and this remained consistent over time. Findings expand upon the available literature suggesting that IA symptoms could function as a development-related manifestation at the age of 16 years, while IA-related gender differences gradually increase between 16 and 18 years. Finally, the association between online flow and IA symptoms remained stable independent of age-related effects. The study highlights individual differences and provides directions for more targeted prevention and intervention initiatives for IA.

Presence describes the feeling of reality and immersion that users of virtual/Internet environments have. Importantly, it has been suggested that there are individual and contextual differences regarding susceptibility to presence. These aspects of presence have been linked to both beneficial and disadvantageous uses of the Internet, such as online therapeutic applications and addictive Internet behaviours. In the present study, presence was studied in relation to individual anxiety symptoms and classroom-level openness to experience (OTE) using a normative sample of 648 adolescents aged between 16 and 18 years. Presence was assessed with the Presence II questionnaire, anxiety symptoms with the relevant subscales of the SCL-90-R, and OTE with the Five-Factor Questionnaire. A three-level hierarchical linear model was calculated. Results showed that experiencing presence in virtual environments dropped between the ages of 16 and 18 years. Additionally, although anxiety symptoms were associated with higher presence at 16 years, this association decreased with age. Results also demonstrated that adolescents in classrooms higher on OTE reported reduced level of experiencing presence. The practical and theoretical implications of these findings are discussed.