Modeling large-scale landscapes is a foundational yet time-consuming task in many 3D applications, typically requiring substantial expertise. Recently, Text-to-3D techniques have emerged as a promising, beginner-friendly prototyping approach for generating 3D content from textual input. However, existing methods either produce unusable, problematic geometries, or fail to fully capture the user's complex intent from the input text—making it difficult to generate high-quality landscape assets with controllable spatial and geographic features. In this paper, we present LandCraft, a novel AI-assisted authoring tool that enables the rapid creation of high-quality landscape scenes based on user descriptions. Our system employs a coarse-to-fine generation process: Initially, large language and deep generative models concretize textual ideas into abstract representations that capture essential landscape features, such as spatial and geographic characteristics. Then, we leverage a comprehensive procedural generation module to synthesize the detailed, structurally consistent 3D landscapes based on these inferred representations. LandCraft can effectively generate production-ready 3D scene assets that can be seamlessly exported to external game engines or modeling software, enabling immediate practical use.

Large language models (LLMs) exhibit uneven performance across languages. In language-specific applications, practitioners often rely on target-language corpora or cross-lingual transfer to achieve better performance. However, traditional linguistic typology, commonly used as a transfer language selection strategy in previous studies, may not align with LLM’s perception of language similarity. This work proposes LLM-based language similarity as a novel perspective for selecting effective fine-tuning languages. We construct a framework to quantify the similarity within each language pair through both the lenses of language-specific performance patterns and cross-lingual transferability, ultimately deriving three similarity score matrices. Moreover, we observe a counter-intuitive phenomenon: super-additive transfer effect, where fine-tuning on a certain language yields higher performance than fine-tuning directly on the target language. Additionally, due to the absence of an existing dataset meeting our experimental requirements, we construct and release M4CQ-Pro dataset, which features domain-diverse distribution of 135 tasks and content consistency across 31 languages (including over 20 medium- and low-resource languages), with 61518 manually reviewed high-quality questions per language. We evaluate our approach on representative multilingual LLMs and results show that all three LLM-based similarity measures effectively guide fine-tuning language selection, outperforming traditional linguistic similarity, with the integrated measure achieving the best results. Our approach provides not only a novel perspective on language similarity, but also practical baselines for selecting fine-tuning languages.

Autonomous agents based on large language models (LLMs) are rapidly evolving to handle multi-turn tasks, but ensuring their trustworthiness remains a critical challenge.A fundamental pillar of this trustworthiness is calibration, which refers to an agent's ability to express confidence that reliably reflects its actual performance.While calibration is well-established for static models, its dynamics in tool-integrated agentic workflows remain under-explored.In this work, we systematically investigate verbalized calibration in tooluse agents, revealing a fundamental confidence dichotomy driven by tool type.Specifically, our pilot study identifies that evidence tools (e.g., web search) systematically induce severe overconfidence due to inherent noise in retrieved information, while verification tools (e.g., code interpreters) can ground reasoning through deterministic feedback and mitigate miscalibration.To robustly improve calibration across tool types, we propose a reinforcement learning (RL) fine-tuning framework that jointly optimizes task accuracy and calibration, supported by a holistic benchmark of reward designs.We demonstrate that our trained agents not only achieve superior calibration but also exhibit robust generalization from local training environments to noisy web settings and to distinct domains such as mathematical reasoning.Our results highlight the necessity of domain-specific calibration strategies for tooluse agents.More broadly, this work establishes a foundation for building self-aware agents that can reliably communicate uncertainty in highstakes, real-world deployments.

Three-dimensional geospatial analysis is critical to applications in urban planning, climate adaptation, and environmental assessment. Current methodologies depend on costly, specialized sensors (e.g., LiDAR and multispectral), which restrict global accessibility. Existing sensor-based and rule-driven methods further struggle with tasks requiring the integration of multiple 3D cues, handling diverse queries, and providing interpretable reasoning. We hereby present Geo3DVQA, a comprehensive benchmark for evaluating vision-language models (VLMs) in height-aware, 3D geospatial reasoning using RGB-only remote sensing imagery. Unlike conventional sensor-based frameworks, Geo3DVQA emphasizes realistic scenarios that integrate elevation, sky view factors, and land cover patterns. The benchmark encompasses 110k curated question–answer pairs spanning 16 task categories across three complexity levels: single-feature inference, multi-feature reasoning, and application-level spatial analysis. The evaluation of ten state-of-the-art VLMs highlights the difficulty of RGB-to-3D reasoning. GPT-4o and Gemini-2.5-Flash achieved only 28.6% and 33.0% accuracy respectively, while domain-specific fine-tuning of Qwen2.5-VL-7B achieved 49.6% (+24.8 points). These results reveal both the limitations of current VLMs and the effectiveness of domain adaptation. Geo3DVQA introduces a new frontier of challenges for scalable, accessible, and holistic 3D geospatial analysis. The dataset and code will be released upon publication at https://github.com/mm1129/Geo3DVQA.

Weihao Xuan, Rui Yang, Heli Qi, Qingcheng Zeng, Yunze Xiao, Aosong Feng, Dairui Liu, Yun Xing, Junjue Wang, Fan Gao, Jinghui Lu, Yuang Jiang, Huitao Li, Xin Li, Kunyu Yu, Ruihai Dong, Shangding Gu, Yuekang Li, Xiaofei Xie, Felix Juefei-Xu, Foutse Khomh, Osamu Yoshie, Qingyu Chen, Douglas Teodoro, Nan Liu, Randy Goebel, Lei Ma, Edison Marrese-Taylor, Shijian Lu, Yusuke Iwasawa, Yutaka Matsuo, Irene Li. Proceedings of the 2025 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing. 2025.

Uncertainty quantification is essential for assessing the reliability and trustworthiness of modern AI systems.Among existing approaches, verbalized uncertainty, where models express their confidence through natural language, has emerged as a lightweight and interpretable solution in large language models (LLMs).However, its effectiveness in vision-language models (VLMs) remains insufficiently studied.In this work, we conduct a comprehensive evaluation of verbalized confidence in VLMs, spanning three model categories, four task domains, and three evaluation scenarios.Our results show that current VLMs often display notable miscalibration across diverse tasks and settings.Notably, visual reasoning models (i.e., thinking with images) consistently exhibit better calibration, suggesting that modality-specific reasoning is critical for reliable uncertainty estimation.To further address calibration challenges, we introduce VI-SUAL CONFIDENCE-AWARE PROMPTING, a two-stage prompting strategy that improves confidence alignment in multimodal settings.Overall, our study highlights the inherent miscalibration in VLMs across modalities.More broadly, our findings underscore the fundamental importance of modality alignment and model faithfulness in advancing reliable multimodal systems.Mirko Borszukovszki, Ivo Pascal De Jong, and Matias Valdenegro-Toro.2025.Know what you do not know: Verbalized uncertainty estimation robustness on corrupted images in vision-language models.In

Large reasoning models (LRMs) have recently demonstrated impressive capabilities in complex reasoning tasks by leveraging increased test-time computation and exhibiting behaviors reminiscent of human-like self-reflection.While LRMs show a clear capacity for valuable self-reflection, how this ability interacts with other model behaviors remains underexplored.We investigate this connection by analyzing verbalized confidence, how models articulate their certainty, as a lens into the nature of self-reflection in LRMs.We find that supervised fine-tuning on reasoning traces (i.e., distillation) and reinforcement learning can improve verbalized calibration in reasoningintensive settings in a progressive, laddered fashion.However, our results also indicate that reasoning models may possess a diminished awareness of their own knowledge boundaries, as evidenced by significantly lower "I don't know" response rates on factuality benchmarks.Moreover, we examine the relationship between verbalized confidence and reasoning chains, finding that models tend to express higher confidence when providing shorter or less elaborate reasoning.Our findings highlight how reasoning-oriented training can enhance performance in reasoning-centric tasks while potentially incurring a reasoning tax, a cost reflected in the model's reduced ability to accurately recognize the limits of its own knowledge in small-scale models.More broadly, our work showcases how this erosion of knowledge boundaries can compromise model faithfulness, as models grow more confident without a commensurate understanding of when they should abstain.

Monocular depth estimation (MDE) is crucial for various computer vision applications, but existing methods often struggle to balance inference speed and accuracy when processing large-region visual information. This paper introduces LR2Depth, a novel MDE method that addresses this challenge by utilizing large-kernel convolution on low-resolution feature maps for efficient large-region feature aggregation. Our approach leverages the fact that each pixel on low-resolution feature maps corresponds to a larger region of the original image, allowing for fast and accurate depth predictions at a lower inference cost. Extensive experiments on NYU-Depth-V2, KITTI, and SUN RGB-D datasets demonstrate that LR2Depth not only achieves state-of-the-art performance but also operates approximately twice as fast as previous MDE methods. Notably, at the time of submission, LR2Depth secured the top-1 position on the KITTI depth prediction online benchmark. The code is available in the project page.

Large vision-language models (VLMs) have made great achievements in Earth vision. However, complex disaster scenes with diverse disaster types, geographic regions, and satellite sensors have posed new challenges for VLM applications. To fill this gap, we curate the first remote sensing vision-language dataset (DisasterM3) for global-scale disaster assessment and response. DisasterM3 includes 26,988 bi-temporal satellite images and 123k instruction pairs across 5 continents, with three characteristics: **1) Multi-hazard**: DisasterM3 involves 36 historical disaster events with significant impacts, which are categorized into 10 common natural and man-made disasters. **2) Multi-sensor**: Extreme weather during disasters often hinders optical sensor imaging, making it necessary to combine Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) imagery for post-disaster scenes. **3) Multi-task**: Based on real-world scenarios, DisasterM3 includes 9 disaster-related visual perception and reasoning tasks, harnessing the full potential of VLM's reasoning ability with progressing from disaster-bearing body recognition to structural damage assessment and object relational reasoning, culminating in the generation of long-form disaster reports. We extensively evaluated 14 generic and remote sensing VLMs on our benchmark, revealing that state-of-the-art models struggle with the disaster tasks, largely due to the lack of a disaster-specific corpus, cross-sensor gap, and damage object counting insensitivity. Focusing on these issues, we fine-tune four VLMs using our dataset and achieve stable improvements (up to 10.4\%$\uparrow$QA, 2.1$\uparrow$Report, 40.8\%$\uparrow$Referring Seg.) with robust cross-sensor and cross-disaster generalization capabilities. Project: https://github.com/Junjue-Wang/DisasterM3.

Multimodal large language models (MLLMs) have demonstrated remarkable capabilities in visual understanding, but their application to long-term Earth observation analysis remains limited, primarily focusing on single-temporal or bi-temporal imagery. To address this gap, we introduce DVL-Suite, a comprehensive framework for analyzing long-term urban dynamics through remote sensing imagery. Our suite comprises 14,871 high-resolution (1.0m) multi-temporal images spanning 42 major cities in the U.S. from 2005 to 2023, organized into two components: DVL-Bench and DVL-Instruct. The DVL-Bench includes six urban understanding tasks, from fundamental change detection (pixel-level) to quantitative analyses (regional-level) and comprehensive urban narratives (scene-level), capturing diverse urban dynamics including expansion/transformation patterns, disaster assessment, and environmental challenges. We evaluate 18 state-of-the-art MLLMs and reveal their limitations in long-term temporal understanding and quantitative analysis. These challenges motivate the creation of DVL-Instruct, a specialized instruction-tuning dataset designed to enhance models' capabilities in multi-temporal Earth observation. Building upon this dataset, we develop DVLChat, a baseline model capable of both image-level question-answering and pixel-level segmentation, facilitating a comprehensive understanding of city dynamics through language interactions. Project: https://github.com/weihao1115/dynamicvl.

Global semantic 3D understanding from single-view high-resolution remote sensing (RS) imagery is crucial for Earth observation (EO). However, this task faces significant challenges due to the high costs of annotations and data collection, as well as geographically restricted data availability. To address these challenges, synthetic data offer a promising solution by being unrestricted and automatically annotatable, thus enabling the provision of large and diverse datasets. We develop a specialized synthetic data generation pipeline for EO and introduce SynRS3D, the largest synthetic RS dataset. SynRS3D comprises 69,667 high-resolution optical images that cover six different city styles worldwide and feature eight land cover types, precise height information, and building change masks. To further enhance its utility, we develop a novel multi-task unsupervised domain adaptation (UDA) method, RS3DAda, coupled with our synthetic dataset, which facilitates the RS-specific transition from synthetic to real scenarios for land cover mapping and height estimation tasks, ultimately enabling global monocular 3D semantic understanding based on synthetic data. Extensive experiments on various real-world datasets demonstrate the adaptability and effectiveness of our synthetic dataset and the proposed RS3DAda method. SynRS3D and related codes are available at https://github.com/JTRNEO/SynRS3D.

Robust point cloud parsing under all-weather conditions is crucial to level-5 autonomy in autonomous driving. However, how to learn a universal 3D semantic segmentation (3DSS) model is largely neglected as most existing benchmarks are dominated by point clouds captured under normal weather. We introduce SemanticSTF, an adverse-weather point cloud dataset that provides dense point-level annotations and allows to study 3DSS under various adverse weather conditions. We study all-weather 3DSS modeling under two setups: 1) domain adaptive 3DSS that adapts from normal-weather data to adverse-weather data; 2) domain generalizable 3DSS that learns all-weather 3DSS models from normal-weather data. Our studies reveal the challenge while existing 3DSS methods encounter adverse-weather data, showing the great value of SemanticSTF in steering the future endeavor along this very meaningful research direction. In addition, we design a domain randomization technique that alternatively randomizes the geometry styles of point clouds and aggregates their embeddings, ultimately leading to a generalizable model that can improve 3DSS under various adverse weather effectively. The SemanticSTF and related codes are available at https://github.com/xiaoaoran/SemanticSTF.