Over the past few years, there have been made significant strides in advancing the Internet of Vehicles (IoV), recognizing its strategic importance in Intelligent Transport Systems. The proliferation of connected and autonomous vehicles on the roads has propelled the IoV into the spotlight. However, addressing the specific demands of vehicular networks, such as low latency, high mobility, extensive connectivity of 5G/6G networks, and robust security, remains a substantial challenge. Therefore, there is a critical need for substantial progress in implementing a resilient Intrusion Detection System within the IoV ecosystem. This paper introduces VFed-IDS, a decentralized, secure, flexible, scalable, and robust Blockchain and Federated Learning-based intrusion detection system. VFed-IDS is designed to identify cyber threats in the IoV while preserving privacy in connected vehicles. The proposed architecture consists of three main layers: the central layer, the local layer, and the Blockchain layer. The central layer includes the SDN Controller, responsible for training and aggregating the global model. The local layer comprises vehicles training individual models based on their private local datasets. The Blockchain layer introduces the Smart Contract VFed-SC, which manages the list of authenticated and collaborating vehicles in the Federated Learning process. It also hashes trained local model updates before transmitting them as transactions between the central and local layers. Simulation results demonstrate that VFed-IDS achieves a high accuracy rate of 99%, effectively enhancing the autonomous behavior of connected vehicles against cyber threats.

Jamming attacks are among the most critical security threats to Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs), as they can severely disrupt normal network operations, leading to data loss, network downtime, and reduced system performance. Intrusion Detection Systems (IDSs) have therefore become essential to protect WSNs. However, conventional IDSs often struggle to detect zero-day attacks, creating a significant security gap. To address this, Artificial Intelligence (AI)-based IDSs have been introduced, offering improved detection capabilities but frequently encountering high bias or variance issues, which reduce their reliability. Recently, ensemble learning (EL) has emerged as a promising approach to build more adaptable and data-resilient models by combining multiple learning algorithms. In this context, we propose AdaptiveBoost, an SDN-based Adaptive Ensemble Learning Framework, specifically designed for effective jamming attack detection in WSNs. The SDN integration allows AdaptiveBoost to optimize network traffic flow, identify anomalies in real-time, and adaptively fine-tune detection mechanisms based on current network conditions. We conduct several experiments to evaluate AdaptiveBoost using real-world WSN attacks; using the well-known public network security dataset, WSN-DS, show that AdaptiveBoost outperforms AI-based algorithms in terms of accuracy, precision, recall, and F1 score, while achieving a remarkable reduction in training time by a factor of 235, making it an efficient, scalable solution for securing WSNs against jamming attacks.

O-RAN (Open Radio Access Network) is a set of open and interoperable radio access technologies, guided by the O-RAN Alliance, that, despite an open ecosystem, introduces significant security risks, expanding the threat surface in 6G networks. Traditional perimeter-based security approaches are inadequate for O-RAN’s highly distributed, multi-vendor environments, where Zero Trust Architecture (ZTA) becomes essential for robust security. To address these challenges, we propose a novel blockchain-based, decentralized Zero-Trust Framework specifically designed for O-RAN security. Our proposed framework comprises two key layers: the first layer utilizes Federated Learning (FL) and Transfer Learning (TL) for advanced attack detection, enabling distributed, privacy-preserving threat analysis across O-RAN nodes. The second layer enforces Zero Trust access control through a blockchain-based identity management system, ensuring tamper-resistant, real-time policy updates. This multi-layered framework provides adaptive threat detection and resilient access control, validated through simulations demonstrating high detection accuracy and robust access management with minimal impact on network performance, offering a scalable security solution for next-generation O-RAN deployments.

The Open Radio Access Network (O-RAN) architecture has enabled the integration of multi-vendor equipment, yielding a significant enhancement in the flexibility and interoperability of telecommunications networks. However, this openness has also introduced new security vulnerabilities, particularly in supply chain integrity. Malicious actors may exploit weaknesses at various stages of production, distribution, or integration, leading to critical threats such as data tampering, unauthorized access, and denial-of-service (DOS) attacks. To address these challenges, this paper proposes a novel blockchain-based framework designed to secure the O-RAN supply chain. The proposed solution leverages a private permissioned blockchain ledger and cryptographic firmware authentication to ensure the integrity and authenticity of network equipment throughout its lifecycle. Specifically, the framework consists of: (1) a decentralized architecture integrating blockchain network components, equipment node validators, and secure firmware authentication mechanisms; and (2) a consensus-based verification model to enhance trust and transparency within the supply chain. To the best of our knowledge, this is one of the first approaches to use blockchain for O-RAN supply chain security, and also addressing emerging security threats in a scalable and tamper-resistant manner. Experimental validation and security assessments demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed framework in mitigating supply chain risks, making it a promising solution for ensuring trust and robustness in next-generation O-RAN ecosystems.

The proliferation of Internet of Things (IoT) devices has introduced significant security vulnerabilities, particularly in detecting zero-day attacks within highly dynamic and heterogeneous environments. Traditional machine learning models often fall short due to their static nature and computational demands. In this paper, we propose an adaptive ensemble learning framework that dynamically selects optimal detection models on a per-attack-class basis to improve detection accuracy while maintaining computational efficiency. Our approach combines multiple base classifiers (Random Forest, K-Nearest Neighbors, and Support Vector Machine) using ensemble techniques including bagging, boosting, and stacking. Ensemble techniques such as Bagging, Boosting, Voting, and Stacking. The key innovation lies in a class-aware model selection mechanism that identifies the most effective classifier-ensemble combination for each specific attack category, rather than applying a single model across all threat types. This targeted approach recognizes that different attack patterns exhibit distinct characteristics that may be better captured by different algorithmic approaches. Finally, we propose a decision-rule mechanism that selects the best-performing model for each attack class to improve detection accuracy. The proposed framework is evaluated through extensive experiments. The results show that our approach significantly enhances classification performance, especially for complex and rare attack types.

Artificial intelligence (AI) has revolutionized many fields, including healthcare. The adoption of AI techniques in critical healthcare tasks, such as cancer diagnosis, holds great promise for revolutionizing the healthcare system. AI algorithms can be trained on vast datasets to recognize patterns, detect anomalies, and provide accurate assessments. However, the lack of realistic and up-to-date medical data poses a significant challenge to the widespread adoption of AI techniques. Additionally, privacy concerns surrounding sensitive medical data, particularly Patient Health Records (PHR), hinder data sharing among healthcare practitioners. This paper aims to address these challenges by proposing a novel framework, entitled SecureMed, that uses Federated Learning (FL) and Blockchain to preserve privacy in the healthcare system. In particular, SecureMed consists of (1) A novel distributed architecture that enables secure collaboration among multiple Mobile Edge Computing (MEC)-based Internet of Medical Things (IoMT) devices, while ensuring the privacy of healthcare systems; (2) A fairness-aware Federated Learning (FL) solution to ensure that model performance is balanced across all participating healthcare institutions, addressing the issue of imbalanced data contributions; (3) A Secure Multiparty Computation (SMPC) protocol to ensure secure aggregation of local model updates; and (4) A blockchain-based reputation model for collaborative FL training. The proposed framework leverages smart contracts to ensure trustworthiness, decentralization, and transparency in the FL process. The experimental results using the CIC IoMT dataset 2024 highlight the promising potential of SecureMed in revolutionizing healthcare systems.

Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITSs) are transforming the global monitoring of road safety. These systems, including vehicular networks and transportation infrastructure, are vulnerable to several security issues, which could disrupt services and potentially cause harm to the users. It is crucial to establish robust security measures to protect against evolving attacks and ensure the safe and reliable operation of ITS. Artificial Intelligence (AI)-based Intrusion Detection Systems (IDS) are mainly used to enhance the security of ITS. The adoption of AI-based techniques to secure ITS against new emerging threats has been limited due to a lack of realistic and recent data on these types of attacks ($i.e.,$zero-day attacks). In this context, we introduce a novel Edge-based Framework that uses Federated Learning (FL) and blockchain to secure ITS against new emerging threats. In particular, our proposed framework consists of (1) a novel distributed Edge-based architecture that allows multiple Edge nodes to securely collaborate while preserving their privacy; and (2) a decentralized and secure reputation system based on blockchain technology to maintain the reliability and trustworthiness of the FL process within the ITS; This system manages reputation data for individual nodes (such as vehicles), guaranteeing the integrity of the FL training process. Experiment results using the UNSW-NB15 dataset show that our proposed framework achieves high accuracy and F1 score (99%) in detecting new threats while ensuring the privacy and reliability of the whole ITS. These results demonstrate the effectiveness of our proposed framework in securing ITS.

The rapid expansion of the Internet of Things (IoT) has increased the demand for robust intrusion detection systems. Federated learning (FL) has appeared as a potential solution to improve the security of IoT networks by facilitating collaboration between multiple devices in training a unified model while keeping their data secure. As the training process of FL occurs locally on individual devices, preserving data privacy becomes crucial. Additionally, combining model updates from multiple devices into a unified model can be challenging. Therefore, addressing these issues is critical to effective and private FL-based intrusion detection in IoT networks. In this paper, we propose a novel approach for ensuring privacy and efficiency in FL for robust intrusion detection in the IoT. Our approach combines secure aggregation and blockchain technology to protect the privacy of IoT data while enabling efficient and accurate model training. We first introduce a secure aggregation algorithm that can be used to combine the model updates from multiple devices in a privacy-preserving manner. This algorithm uses multi-party computation to prevent any single party from seeing the data of the other parties, thereby ensuring that the privacy of IoT data is maintained throughout the model training process. Then, we incorporate the use of blockchain technology to ensure data integrity and prevent tampering. Finally, we perform experiments on real-world IoT datasets to demonstrate the effectiveness of our approach. Our results show that our approach achieves high accuracy in intrusion detection while preserving the privacy of the IoT data.

As 5G networks continue to evolve, they are becoming increasingly intricate and diverse, accommodating a vast array of devices. This complexity poses significant challenges when it comes to safeguarding these networks against cyber-attacks. While the core infrastructure of 5G is shifting towards virtualization and is being deployed by multiple vendors, Radio Access Networks (RANs) have traditionally been delivered as tightly integrated solutions, often lacking interoperability. Open RAN (O- RAN) emerges as a flexible and cost-effective approach to designing and deploying mobile networks. It allows for the integration of mobile radio access networks from various vendors through the use of disaggregated and O- RAN technologies. Nevertheless, the introduction of components from multiple vendors into the supply chain increases complexity, making it difficult to ensure the security of each individual component. Additionally, O- RAN's attack surface expands due to seamless access for numerous devices. In this dynamic landscape, adopting a zero-trust architecture (ZTA) presents an attractive framework for bolstering security in open networks. We introduce an intelligent architectural concept design that leverages key zero-trust principles to enhance information security within the inherently untrusted O-RAN environment. Moreover, we propose a solution that combines deep reinforcement learning techniques with traditional machine learning methods to fortify security in Open RAN. Finally, we evaluate the performance of our proposed solution using the UNSW network dataset and demonstrate its superior performance across selected metrics.

Open Radio Access Networks (O-RAN) are gaining momentum because of their ability to provide greater vendor flexibility, cost-effectiveness, and scalability, making it an attractive choice for network operators. However, securing O-RAN has become an essential concern due to the inherent vulnerabilities and risks associated with their open nature. Zero trust architecture (ZTA) can help address the security issues associated with O-RAN. ZTA is a security model that assumes that all devices, users, and applications are potentially hostile and cannot be trusted until verified. In addition to ZTA, the integration of deep learning techniques can allow for the detection and prevention of sophisticated cyber threats in real-time. In this work, we propose a novel approach to securing O-RAN using ZTA and Deep Sarsa reinforcement learning algorithms. First, we developed a ZTA model using an open-source approach that can be used as the base architecture for our study. Then, we present our proposed approach, which uses Deep Sarsa to learn the optimal policy for enforcing access control rules on the network resources based on user authentication data from ZTA. Finally, we evaluate our model using real data sets and show that it performs better than other approaches in terms of accuracy, F1 score, and precision. Our results demonstrate that combining ZTA with reinforcement learning is a promising way to help secure O-RAN while still providing flexible access control policies for operators.

The development of the Metaverse is completely changing how business is done in the physical world. The Metaverse considerably improves intelligent manufacturing by mapping out operations and spreading them into virtual space. The Metaverse can access data from numerous production and operation lines thanks to the Internet of Things (IoT), enabling efficient data analysis and decision-making. However, the problem of sharing sensitive and private data remains a challenge when integrating the Metaverse with IoT. Federated learning (FL) has emerged as a distributed machine learning (ML) setting that can overcome the security problems related to data sharding With FL, several devices can work together to create an ML model under the direction of a central server while maintaining the privacy and security of their local training data. FL in the Metaverse continues to face significant challenges due to a lack of transparency, learning forgetting caused by streaming industrial data, and problems with non-independent and identically dispersed (non-iid) data. In this paper, we develop a FL framework for transparent and secure model learning in the Metaverse using blockchain technology. The blockchain ledger stores and verifies the model updates which ensures that all updates are tamper-proof and transparent to all parties involved. Furthermore, we propose a scheduling approach to distribute the bandwidth between reliable devices, hence minimizing communication across FL devices and giving devices with reliable behavior priority. The numerical result demonstrates that our framework performed better on the chosen indicators.

Recent advances in the Internet of Things (IoT) offer a plethora of new opportunities for several intelligent services and applications. As the IoT connects a massive number of devices, inevitable security threats must be addressed. On the one hand, machine learning (ML), especially federated learning (FL), is proposed as a promising distributed ML paradigm to improve attack detection performance in the IoT network due to its privacy-preserving and lower latency advantages. On the other hand, blockchain is proposed as a decentralized technology to establish a secure and decentralized environment for IoT devices. However,$F$L and blockchain solutions are not well suited for the IoT context that suffers from resource limitations, such as limited communication bandwidth and scarce computing resources of IoT devices. In addition, traditional FL and blockchain solutions are unable to guarantee the reliability of data. In this paper, we present a decentralized FL framework powered by blockchain for security attack protection in IoT systems. In addition, we propose an oracle blockchain network that protects privacy and guarantees data reliability. The oracle blockchain acts as a trusted third party to verify the reliability of data and pattern formation at the network edge. Finally, we will formulate a resource allocation problem to allocate the necessary bandwidth to selected devices meticulously. The goal is to minimize communication between devices in the framework and prioritize devices with reliable behavior.

Federated learning (FL) is a distributed machine learning (ML) technique that enables collaborative training in which devices perform learning using a local dataset while preserving their privacy. This technique ensures privacy, communication efficiency, and resource conservation. Despite these advantages, FL still suffers from several challenges related to reliability (i.e., unreliable participating devices in training), tractability (i.e., a large number of trained models), and anonymity. To address these issues, we propose a secure and trustworthy blockchain framework (SRB-FL) tailored to FL, which uses blockchain features to enable collaborative model training in a fully distributed and trustworthy manner. In particular, we design a secure FL based on the blockchain sharding that ensures data reliability, scalability, and trustworthiness. In addition, we introduce an incentive mechanism to improve the reliability of FL devices using subjective multi-weight logic. The results show that our proposed SRB- FL framework is efficient and scalable, making it a promising and suitable solution for federated learning.

Recently, blockchain has gained momentum as a novel technology that gives rise to a plethora of new decentralized applications (e.g., Internet of Things (IoT)). However, its integration with the IoT is still facing several problems (e.g., scalability, flexibility). Provisioning resources to enable a large number of connected IoT devices implies having a scalable and flexible blockchain. To address these issues, we propose a scalable and trustworthy blockchain (STB) architecture that is suitable for the IoT; which uses blockchain sharding and oracles to establish trust among unreliable IoT devices in a fully distributed and trustworthy manner. In particular, we design a Peer-To-Peer oracle network that ensures data reliability, scalability, flexibility, and trustworthiness. Furthermore, we introduce a new lightweight consensus algorithm that scales the blockchain dramatically while ensuring the interoperability among participants of the blockchain. The results show that our proposed STB architecture achieves flexibility, efficiency, and scalability making it a promising solution that is suitable for the IoT context.

FEderated Edge Learning (FEEL) has emerged as a leading technique for privacy-preserving distributed training in wireless edge networks, where edge devices collaboratively train machine learning (ML) models with the orchestration of a server. However, due to frequent communication, FEEL needs to be adapted to the limited communication bandwidth. Furthermore, the statistical heterogeneity of local datasets’ distributions, and the uncertainty about the data quality pose important challenges to the training’s convergence. Therefore, a meticulous selection of the participating devices and an analogous bandwidth allocation are necessary. In this paper, we propose a data-quality based scheduling (DQS) algorithm for FEEL. DQS prioritizes reliable devices with rich and diverse datasets. In this paper, we define the different components of the learning algorithm and the data-quality evaluation. Then, we formulate the device selection and the bandwidth allocation problem. Finally, we present our DQS algorithm for FEEL, and we evaluate it in different data poisoning scenarios.

The blockchain is a distributed technology which allows establishing trust among unreliable users who interact and perform transactions with each other. While blockchain technology has been mainly used for crypto-currency, it has emerged as an enabling technology for establishing trust in the realm of the Internet of Things (IoT). Nevertheless, a naive usage of the blockchain for IoT leads to high delays and extensive computational power. In this paper, we propose a blockchain architecture dedicated to being used in a supply chain which comprises different distributed IoT entities. We propose a lightweight consensus for this architecture, called LC4IoT. The consensus is evaluated through extensive simulations. The results show that the proposed consensus uses low computational power, storage capability and latency.