In order to effectively use augmented reality (AR) for learning support, it is important to take into account learners’ subjective AR-specific learning experience. In this work-in-progress paper, a first version of the ARcis questionnaire intended to measure learners’ perception of contextuality, interactivity, and spatiality in AR-based learning environments is presented. Results of a first implementation of this questionnaire in four studies (total N = 456) with different AR-based learning materials are described. Analyses of reliability and factor structure of the questionnaire show promising first outcomes on which suggestions for adaptations and future validation strategies are made.

Learning about three-dimensional (3D) objects is the focus of many augmented reality (AR) applications. Although this underlines the importance of spatiality in AR experiences, learners' spatial abilities should be considered in this context. While spatial abilities may compensate for the lack of spatial information in 2D representations (ability-as-compensator hypothesis), they may also be necessary for learning with 3D representations in the first place (ability-as-enhancer hypothesis). In the current study, we examine the role 3D spatial visualization abilities and 2D spatial memory abilities may play when learning with 3D AR objects. Both variables were measured in an exploratory pilot study in which N = 33 participants learned about the spatial structure of the modules of the International Space Station (ISS) with either an AR or a non-AR mobile application. We found that spatial abilities indeed had moderating effects on achievement in the learning task and knowledge test, although the results are inconclusive concerning an ability-as-enhancer or -compensator hypothesis. We discuss the results and conclude that it is necessary that researchers take a closer look at the role of learners' spatial abilities when learning with 3D representations in AR. With additional insights, practitioners can then make informed decisions on using AR applications.

In this paper, a study with the focus on interactivity in augmented reality (AR) applications concerning the influence of different forms of interaction with AR learning material is presented. While research on multimedia learning often distinguishes between mental and physical interaction with learning material, other research fields state that physical interaction is necessary to interact mentally. To look at how this distinction may play a role in AR-based learning material, an experimental study with a 2x2 design manipulating mental and physical interaction was conducted, including learning material on the topic of power plants. The data (N = 128) were collected and analyzed, showing that, although not expected, learning was better in groups in which either more physical or more mental interaction was applied, but not in groups in which both were high. The results are discussed under the potential idea of cognitive overload.

In this paper, three technological characteristics of augmented reality (AR) are reframed from a perceptual, user’s perspective and discussed concerning their potential for education and in the context of research on technology-supported learning. The first characteristic, contextuality, describes that users of AR can experience the real world and virtual elements simultaneously. The second characteristic, interactivity, includes the possibilities to interact with AR through the manipulation of both real objects and virtual properties, which offers novel possibilities for interaction. The third characteristic, spatiality, focusses on the linking of virtual objects to specific points in space and the more realistic three-dimensionality that AR visualizations offer. It is proposed that these three characteristics can provide a way to structure the broad research landscape of AR in education and form a basis for future research projects. Two studies are presented and linked to the three characteristics. In the first study, the comparison of a desktop simulation and an AR simulation in an individual learning setting is linked to the characteristics of interactivity and spatiality. In the second study, the contextuality of AR is systematically varied and exploited to present group awareness information about other learners next to these learners instead of separated from them. The results of the studies are discussed in the context of the three characteristics and the paper concludes that there are a lot of different educational settings in which AR could be beneficial. The classification of and systematic variation in research based on the three characteristics may form a basis to systematize educational AR research. Furthermore, the results of this research and the three characteristics themselves can inform the design of AR applications to support learning.