Drones will soon deliver packages to recipients in public spaces, where drones may encounter difficulties identifying safe drop-off locations. Such uncertainties can reduce trust and raise safety concerns. This augmented reality study investigates how recipients perceive being asked to guide the drone in uncertain situations using hand gestures, and to what extent they feel comfortable with different levels of involvement. Results show that participants preferred a basic level of involvement, which received higher trust and usability scores than either no or high involvement. We recommend involving recipients in the final stage of delivery to not only support drone operations but also improve recipient trust and clarity in uncertain conditions.

Drones are likely to enter social spaces in the foreseeable future. Novel Human-Drone Interactions (HDI) will foster beyond typical drone-operator interaction, posing new human factors challenges. However, the specific focus areas for HDI research remain unclear. This study conducts 11 expert interviews to identify potential use cases and human factors challenges for HDI in public spaces. Initial drone use cases include emergency response and delivery scenarios, where the general public may interact as recipients and bystanders, each posing unique challenges. Uncertainty, stemming from a lack of awareness, emerges as a significant human factors concern, impacting perceived risk. Addressing this uncertainty, especially in recipients, may involve refining drone behaviour, physical appearance, and interface design. The challenges identified in this study lay the groundwork for future HDI research in public spaces.

The use of drones is expected to increase for delivering groceries or medical equipment to individuals. Understanding how people perceive drone behavior, specifically in terms of approach trajectories and delivery methods, and identifying factors that induce feelings of uncertainty is crucial for perceived safety and trust. This virtual reality experiment investigated the impact of drone approach trajectories and delivery methods on feelings of uncertainty. Forty-five participants observed a drone approaching in an orthogonal or a curved path and either, delivering packages by landing or using a cable while hovering above eye level. We found that participants felt uncertain and unsafe, especially when looking up at drones approaching with orthogonal paths. Curved paths led to lower feelings of uncertainty, with comments such as being more natural, trustful, and safe. Feelings of uncertainty arose while landing on the ground due to altitude changes and potential collision concerns. Using a cable instead of actually landing for delivery reduced feelings of uncertainty and increased trust. The study recommends drones avoid hovering near humans, especially after landing. Furthermore, the study suggests exploring design solutions, including design aesthetics and human–machine interfaces, that clearly convey drone intentions to help reduce feelings of uncertainty.

Drones will likely enter public spaces soon for deliveries, interacting with humans as recipients or bystanders. Understanding their requirements and factors contributing to uncertainty is crucial for safer Human-Drone Interaction design. Twelve participants were interviewed and engaged in focus groups. Preliminary results indicate the need for clear communication of drone intentions through design and interfaces, guiding future research and design concepts to be tested with user studies for delivery drones in public spaces.