Daily mean albedo is a critical variable in surface energy budget and climate change studies. Currently, satellite-based daily mean albedo is typically estimated from the diurnal variation of albedo, derived from multi-angle reflectance observations using a Bidirectional Reflectance Distribution Function (BRDF) kernel-driven model. However, this model assumes flat terrain and neglects topographic effects. This study evaluates the estimation errors of daily mean albedo derived from the BRDF kernel-driven model over rugged terrain. Experiments were conducted for rugged terrains with different mean slopes (10°, 20°, and 30°) and aspects (north and west) at spatial scales of 500 m and 1 km, using large-scale remote sensing data and the image simulation framework (LESS) model. The results demonstrate that topography significantly influences the daily mean albedo derived from the BRDF kernel-driven model, with the largest relative error exceeding 50%. The estimation error increases as the slope of the terrain becomes steeper and is also strongly influenced by the aspect of the terrain. When the solar azimuth angle aligns with the aspect of the rugged terrain, the estimation error becomes particularly pronounced. These findings highlight the necessity of accounting for topographic effects when estimating daily mean albedo.

The optimized sampling is very important for obtaining representative observations over heterogeneous surfaces. However, spatial heterogeneity (SH) is influenced by both randomness and structure factors and varies with scale. A comprehensive understanding of how the contribution of these factors to SH varies with scale is crucial for optimizing sampling. This study quantified the scale dependence of SH caused by structure and randomness factors based on the geostatistical attributes of semivariogram and explored the relationship between the optimal deployment of ground samples and SH dominated by randomness or structure factors. The results showed that as the plot size increased, the proportion of SH caused by spatial structure factors (${P} _{\text {SSF}}$) increased. When the plot size was larger than 20 m, the${P} _{\text {SSF}}$gradually approached 80%–100%. As the plot size increased, the optimal sample plots were distributed on the typical structural features in the area. However, when the plot size was small, the optimal samples were not necessarily located on the predominant surface types. Optimizing sampling can characterize the SH, and the optimal deployment of ground samples should comprehensively consider the plot size and the number of sample plots.

Quantitative evaluation of errors caused by Digital Elevation Model (DEM) geolocation bias is crucial for the multiscale validation of land surface albedo (LSA) over rugged terrain, as it provides a deeper understanding of topographic effects and helps minimizing validation uncertainties. This letter simulates the near-infrared band (NIR, 850 nm) fine scale albedo maps and coarse scale albedo by (large-scale remote sensing data and image simulation framework) LESS model, and shifts the DEMs along the different directions to aggregate to different coarse scales. The Mountain-Radiation-Transfer-based (MRT-based) albedo upscaling model was used to aggregate to the coarse scale. The results demonstrate that the errors distribution caused by DEM offsets is related to the terrain features. The primary factors influencing these errors are the average slope and coarse scale. Error increases with steeper slopes and decreases with larger coarse scales. Specifically, at 250 m, for terrains with a mean slope of approximately 25°, when the DEM is shifted by 4 pixels in both row and column directions, the errors can exceed 0.08, which is 4.5 times greater than those for gentle slopes (mean slope ≈ 5°). Minor DEM offsets are generally acceptable for gentle slopes and larger scales (>1 km), whereas precise DEM geolocation is essential for steeper slopes (mean slope > 15°), particularly at smaller coarse scales.

The diurnal variation of high spatial resolution albedo is crucial for understanding the energy budget over mountainous areas. Topography significantly affects the diurnal variation of albedo, making its accurate estimation challenging. In this study, we propose a novel algorithm for estimating the diurnal variation of albedo over sloping terrain using high-resolution satellite data. The diurnal variation of albedo is represented as the product of instantaneous albedo at the time of satellite overpass and a diurnal variation factor. Instantaneous albedo is derived from Landsat data and prior BRDF information from the Polarization and Directionality of the Earth’s Reflectances (POLDER) database. The diurnal variation factor is calculated using a fine-scale digital elevation model (DEM) and prior BRDF information, capturing the shape of diurnal variation. Validation against in situ measurements demonstrates the algorithm’s high accuracy ($R^{2} = 0.902$and root-mean-square error (RMSE) = 0.029). In addition, this study examines the differences in the diurnal variation patterns between horizontal/horizontal sloped albedo (HHSA) and inclined/inclined sloping surface albedo (IISA). The results reveal a notable difference between the two: diurnal variation of HHSA is more sensitive to topography, showing a J-shaped pattern, whereas that of IISA consistently follows a U-shaped pattern, better reflecting the sloping surface properties.

Satellite products have served as the foundation for subsequent analysis, modeling, and decision-making. However, the errors or inconsistencies of satellite products may bias or even mislead the conclusions and decisions based on them. Using ground-based observation data to directly correct the errors in satellite products provides a more relaxed and direct method for constraining the errors of satellite products. However, it is challenged by the sparsity of ground station distribution and the spatial scale mismatch between ground observations and satellite pixels. To address this issue, this study pioneers an integrated and comprehensive methodological framework for pixel-by-pixel error correction based on sparsein situsite observation data across the globe. This methodological framework comprises several core components: the error correction models over the regions within situsites based on the pixel scale ground "truth", the spatial extension model to allocate optimal error correction model for regions withoutin situsites, and finally the pixel-by-pixel error correction of satellite products. MCD43A3 v061 was taken as an example to illustrate the methodology as well as its effectiveness. The RMSE of error-corrected MCD43A3 based on the optimal correction model was reduced from 0.05 to approximately 0.02. To conclude, the results and comparative analysis shown in this study suggested that the proposed framework for pixel-by-pixel error correction of satellite products based on ground observations from sparse networks has the potential to further improve the quality of satellite products across the globe.

Characterizing the anisotropic features at the Top of Atmosphere (TOA) is crucial for vegetation monitoring and retrieval of biophysical parameters. The core challenge lies in modeling the mutual interactions between land surface and atmosphere, particularly in the context of rugged terrains and cloudy conditions. The GOSAILTA is proposed to extend the top-of-canopy (TOC) anisotropic reflectance Geometric Optical and mutual shadowing and Scattering-from Arbitrarily-Inclined- Leaves model coupled with Topography (GOSAILT) model to TOA reflectance/radiance by integrating Santa Barbara DISORT Atmospheric Radiative Transfer (SBDART) model. The interactions between atmosphere and land surface are characterized for the effects of the sloped surface and its surrounding terrains under both clear and cloudy conditions. The model was validated against Discrete Anisotropic Radiative Transfer (DART) simulations, airborne observations from Wideangle Infrared Dual-model line/area Array Scanner (WIDAS), and satellite observations from HJ-1A/B constellation Charge- Coupled Device (CCD). Results demonstrate high overall accuracy in the red band (coefficient of determination (R2) = 0.993; root-mean-square error (RMSE) = 0.008; mean absolute percentage error (MAPE) = 5.481%) and near-infrared (NIR) band (R2 = 0.933, RMSE = 0.025; MAPE = 6.227%) compared to DART simulations. The simulations show strong agreement with WIDAS and HJ, achieving an R² of 0.9. However, the accuracy is slightly lower for top-of-cloud reflectance, with an R² and MAPE of 0.311 and 14.972%, respectively, primarily due to limitations in cloud parameterization.

The diurnal variation of land surface albedo (DVLSA) is crucial for understanding energy budgets and climate change. As topography complicates the radiative transfer processes, the estimation of DVLSA over rugged terrain becomes challenging. In this study, the topography-coupled DVLSA model (DVLSA_T) is developed to estimate DVLSA over rugged terrain. DVLSA_T represents DVLSA as a multiplication between the basic albedo and a diurnal variation factor. The basic albedo is the albedo at local noon with topographic effects removed, while the diurnal variation factor extends the albedo from local noon to different times of the day, accounting for topographic effects. Specifically, the diurnal variation factor of black-sky albedo (BSA) changes with the illumination geometry, integrating the topographic effects and U-shaped pattern of DVLSA. In contrast, the diurnal variation factor of white-sky albedo (WSA) is independent of illumination geometry and is solely influenced by topography. DVLSA_T shows good performance when compared with the 3-D radiative transfer simulations by the large-scale remote sensing data and image simulation framework (LESS) (BSA: coefficient of determination (${R}^{2}$) = 0.977; root-mean-square (RMSE) = 0.013; WSA:${R}^{2} =0.982$; and RMSE = 0.012) and sandbox measurements (blue-sky albedo:${R}^{2} = 0.904$and RMSE = 0.012). DVLSA_T also has a good agreement with in situ measurements, with an RMSE of 0.024 and an${R}^{2}$of 0.738. Our results demonstrate that DVLSA_T can effectively characterize DVLSA over rugged terrain.

In this study, a novel algorithm for high spatial resolution leaf area index (LAI) retrieval, specifically tailored for mountain forests, has been developed. As an essential climate variable, LAI has been incorporated into many ecohydrological process simulation models; however, the majority of the algorithms are developed on the assumption of flat terrain. Previous studies have proved that neglecting the influence of topography may introduce significant biases and uncertainties into LAI estimates particularly in rugged areas. As an important species in the mountain area, forests occupy a large land area worldwide; nevertheless, it is still challenging to obtain high-quality LAIs from satellite images due to their complex canopy structures. In spite of numerous attempts having been made to address such issues with topographic correction (TC) or mountain canopy reflectance models, few algorithms were actually available for LAI estimation of mountain forests. Here, we try to employ the geometric optical and mutual shadowing and scattering from the arbitrarily inclined-leaves model coupled with the topography (GOSAILT) model to retrieve forest LAI over complex terrain. GOSAILT is a combined model that incorporates the radiative transfer model (RTM) into the geometrical optical model (GOM) on the slope surface. It is capable of characterizing the bidirectional reflectance of both discrete and continuous canopies. The validations against computer-simulated LAIs reveal root-mean square errors (RMSEs) being 1.7160 and 0.6260, corresponding to terrain-ignored scenario and terrain-considered scenario, respectively. Besides, the validation against in situ LAIs demonstrated that the RMSE is 0.9262 over flat terrain and 0.6402 over sloped terrain. This evidence underscores the robust performance of the newly developed algorithm.

Downward shortwave radiation (DSR) is greatly affected by rugged terrains, which account for about 24% of the world’s surface. Yet, existing DSR products do not take into account topographical effects. Some topographic correction algorithms have been developed for estimating the clear-sky instantaneous DSR over rugged terrains (DSRins-rugged), but no specific algorithms are available to get the daily average DSR over rugged terrains (DSRdaily-rugged). The objective of this study is to develop an efficient and robust model to retrieve the clear-sky DSRdaily-rugged based on DSR satellite products. After examining ground measurements collected from several mountainous sites over the Chengde Experimental Area in China, we found that the clear-sky DSRins-rugged over a day follows a pseudo-sine curve, depending on aspect, slope, and other terrain factors, which form the foundation of our terrain correction sinusoidal model (TCSM). TCSM also includes a new simple shadow correction method. Validation against ground measurements showed that shadow-corrected clear sky TCSM DSRdaily-rugged estimated from in situ measurements is highly accurate with a root-mean-square error (RMSE) of 9.69 Wm−2, bias of 0.93 Wm−2, and$R^{2}$of 0.99. After applying TCSM to correct the topographic effects of both the Clouds and Earth’s Radiant Energy Systems synoptic Edition4 (CERES-SYN1deg_Ed4A) and MCD18A1 C6 (MCD18) DSR products, the accuracies significantly improved, with the validated RMSE reduced from 63.60 and 64.51 to 14.03 and 12.60 Wm−2, the bias from −38.58 and −36.93 to 5.53 and −7.17 Wm−2, and$R^{2}$from 0.46 and 0.44 to 0.97 and 0.98, respectively. Additionally, the TCSM can be easily applied to other DSR products that do not consider the topographic effects.

Land Surface Temperature (LST) is crucial for studying various surface processes. Previous validations of remotely sensed LST products gained mostly the combined results of remotely sensed observations overlaid with inversion algorithms, failing to account for the impact of multi-source data on inversion results. To address this, data from six polar-orbiting satellites within China region in 2019 were collected using a uniform inversion algorithm. The derived LST values were then validated against in-situ measurements from 13 ground sites in China. Results showed minor disparities in LST validation results among satellites, with an root mean square error (RMSE) ranging from 2.6K to 3.0K. Variation analysis revealed higher errors in extreme temperature levels and a decrease in RMSE with increasing angular distance. These findings enhance understanding of multi-source data's influence on LST inversion quality and promote collaborative utilization of satellite data.

Validation of satellite albedo products relies on reference value on the coarse pixel scale which is acquired by independent means. In previous researches, reference value was generally obtained within the nominal spatial extent of the validation pixel fromin situobservations or high spatial resolution airborne/spaceborne albedo references. Nevertheless, the signal of the validation pixel may correspond to different areas due to geometric errors. This geolocation mismatch will introduce large uncertainty into validation results, particularly for pixels covering heterogeneous areas. Therefore, this study first proposed a geometric location matching method on the coarse pixel level to establish the actual position of the validation pixel. The results show that geolocation error of the validation pixels of the high-order satellite products occurs widely. And they are not systematically shifted. The errors of reference values resulting from geolocation errors range from -10% to 25%, which are very likely to be greater than the accuracy requirement of satellite albedo products. Such errors caused by geometric shifts of validation pixels significantly amplify the errors in satellite albedo products. With this geometric location matching method, the reported relative RMSE of MCD43A3 V061 reduced from 9.8% to 3.2%, and the reported correlation coefficient increased from 0.204 to 0.611. This method is very helpful to reduce the uncertainty of validation results and identify the real accuracy of satellite albedo products. Moreover, it has the generalization ability for other numerical variables over other types of land surfaces.

The spatial scale mismatch between satellite andin-situ-based measurements can be reduced by deploying multiplein-situsites within the coarse pixel. However, upscalingin-situmeasurements from the ground-support scale to the coarse pixel scale is still necessary due to their “point” measurement characteristics. The previous upscaling methods were generally developed merely for thein-situmeasurements. Nevertheless, the uncertainty ofin-situmeasurements such as measurement errors and spatial representativeness errors was not dealt with. Consequently, the upscaling results inevitably suffer from errors, which will finally propagate into the pixel scale ground “truth”. For the first time, this study presents an improved upscaling method with the consideration of the uncertainty ofin-situmeasurements based on the error theory and measurement adjustment theory. The effectiveness of the corrected upscaling coefficients was evaluated by comparing the accuracy of the corrected upscaling results with those based on the upscaling coefficients without considering the uncertainty ofin-situmeasurements. The results indicate that the accuracy of the upscaling results can be enhanced by 11.06% in the condition in whichin-situmeasurements suffer from large uncertainty. However, if the uncertainty ofin-situmeasurements is negligible, the corrected upscaling model is not necessary because it does not bring many benefits. Although the effectiveness of this method was only tested on a limited study area, it makes an important first step toward a higher precision pixel-scale ground “truth”, especially when the uncertainty ofin-situmeasurements is non-negligible.

The validation of remote sensing land surface temperature (LST) data necessitates a comparison between satellite retrieval outcomes andin situobservations. The efficiency ofin situobservations can be ameliorated via analysis and modeling, whereby the heterogeneity ofin situobservations on temporal and spatial scales is central to the analysis. A fresh algorithm has been developed to optimize deployment by relying on the standard deviation of spatial heterogeneity. The validation outcomes indicated that the coefficient of determination (R2) of the five typical surface features at three time points was 0.66, with a root mean square error (RMSE) of 1.99 °C and a mean absolute error (MAE) of 1.62 °C. Moreover, the spatiotemporal heterogeneity character of typical surface features displayed different features, and the LST variation curves of each typical surface feature displayed a similar pattern under sunny conditions. The application of the Savitzky–Golay filtering method reduced errors by 4% of the total errors caused by random errors inin situobservations. With the analysis of the spatiotemporal characteristics of in-situ observation. First, the number of required sites algorithm computed a minimum sampling number of 4. Second, the analysis of the means algorithm computed the 5 optimal points. Additionally, the multipointin situobservations were regularized by standard scores. The optimization of the selected points could be executed to improve the results by eliminating the "distance" points, which are located further away from the multipointin situobserved LST statistical mean. Our outcomes will deepen the comprehension of the spatiotemporal character ofin situobserved LST and enhance the efficiency of equipment with equivalent accuracy.

Semi-empirical bidirectional reflectance distribution function (BRDF) models are developed based on various spatial-resolution pixels. Because of its simplicity and physical significance, it is widely used in medium- and low-spatial-resolution quantitative remote sensing. With the emergence of high-spatial-resolution remote sensing data and the lack of high-spatial-resolution BRDF models, semi-empirical BRDF models have also been directly applied to high-spatial-resolution qualitative and quantitative remote sensing research. However, whether semi-empirical BRDF models can be directly applied to pixels with high resolution remains unclear. To answer this question, this letter quantitatively evaluates the applicability of semi-empirical BRDF models for remote sensing data with 0.5–30 m spatial resolution based on the WIDAS multi-angular observation dataset obtained during the HiWATER experiment in 2012. The results demonstrate that the semi-empirical BRDF models are not applicable at the 0.5 m pixel scale but are applicable at the 10 m pixel scale. There is a transitional pixel scale from not applicable to applicable between 0.5 and 10 m. We define this scale as the optimal minimum pixel scale (OMS) of semi-empirical BRDF models. The OMS is related to the spatial structure of the vegetation scene, and it is highly consistent with the canopy characteristic scale calculated based on the semivariogram method ($R^{2}=0.901$). Therefore, the range of the semivariogram can be used to estimate the OMS to answer the question of which scale semi-empirical BRDF models are applicable to high-spatial-resolution images.

The estimation of satellite-based albedo highly depends on the surface reflectance (SR). In mountainous areas, three types of SRs [i.e., the virtual SR (VSR) that is retrieved from the atmospheric correction model, the topographically corrected SR (TCSR) that is retrieved from the atmospheric and topographic correction model, and the sloping SR (SSR) that is retrieved from the physically bidirectional reflectance distribution function (BRDF)-based mountain-radiative-transfer (MRT) model] are commonly used to retrieve land surface albedo (SA). However, which type of SR is the best option for SA retrieval has not yet been quantitatively addressed. This letter assessed the performance of these three types of SRs on driving SA by comparison within situalbedo measurements over field sites in the Heihe River Basin, China. Our results show that these three types of albedos have consistent accuracy over flat sites with a root mean squared error (RMSE) smaller than 0.0320. Moreover, the sloping SA (SSA) retrieved from SSR shows the best agreement within situalbedo measurements over rugged sites with a bias of 0.0008, RMSE of 0.0338, relative RMSE (RMSER) of 12.92%, and correlation coefficient ($r$) of 0.89, followed by the topographically corrected SA (TCSA) from TCSR with a lager bias of 0.0208, RMSE of 0.0470, RMSERof 20.24%, and$r$of 0.69. The virtual SA (VSA) retrieved from VSR shows the largest uncertainty than the other two types of albedos, with an RMSE of 0.0516. These results illustrate that SSR is the best option of reflectance for satellite-based albedo retrieval over mountainous areas.

Land surface albedo is a crucial variable of earth energy budget and global climate change. Rugged terrain significantly impacts surface bidirectional reflectance distribution function (BRDF) and the subsequent albedo retrieval using satellite remote sensing. Existing studies of estimating surface BRDF/albedo from satellite observations are limited to neglecting topographic impacts, resulting in large uncertainty in satellite albedo product, especially for low spatial resolution satellite sensors that are primarily regulated by subpixel-scale topographic effects. To fill this knowledge gap, we proposed an extended multisensor combined BRDF inversion (EMCBI) model to characterize subpixel-scale topographic effects, and applied this model to estimate BRDF/albedo from the Himawari-8 Advanced Himawari Imager (AHI) and Terra/Aqua moderate resolution imaging spectroradiometer (MODIS) data and finally validated the satellite-derived albedo with ground measurements of two stations located in Tibet plateau. Our results show that: 1) EMCBI can generate a daily BRDF/albedo dataset with more than 90% spatial coverage and 2) EMCBI-derived albedo agrees well with the referenced albedo corrected from ground measurement, with a root-mean-square-error (RMSE) of 0.0537 and 0.0608 for black-sky albedo (BSA) and white-sky albedo (WSA), and a mean absolute percentage error (MAPE) of 21.93% and 25.13% for BSA and WSA, respectively. These results demonstrate EMCBI has great potential for mapping large-scale high temporal resolution BRDF/albedo product over rugged terrain.

Uncertainty quantification is an important part of validation, because the pixel scale reference generally suffers from uncertainty caused by different factors, lowering the accuracy of validation results. In order to take a step forward to characterize the uncertainty of validation results, this study proposed a simulated shift-based pixel matching (SSPM) method with the aim of quantifying the uncertainty caused by geometric mismatch in the multiscale validation. Furthermore, its relationships with spatial heterogeneity and subpixel size were also explored. It was found that the uncertainty caused by the geometric mismatch is nonnegligible in multiscale validation, which would obscure the true accuracy of satellite products. Spatial heterogeneity makes a positive contribution to the uncertainty caused by geometric mismatch, but the magnitude depends on subpixel size, being weaker with small subpixel size and stronger with larger subpixel size. Subpixel size is generally positively related to geometric uncertainty. But in the case of very large spatial heterogeneity, their correlation is very weak. This study is an important step toward quantitatively characterizing the uncertainties of pixel scale reference in order to increase the confidence of validation results.

Surface albedo plays a key role in global climate modeling as a factor controlling the energy budget. Satellite observations were utilized to estimate surface albedo at global and regional scales with good precision over flat areas. However, because topography greatly complicates radiative transfer (RT) processes, estimating the albedo of rugged terrain with satellite data remains a challenge. In addition, albedo definitions over sloping terrain differ from that for flat areas. They include horizontal/horizontal sloped surface albedo (HHSA) and inclined/inclined sloped surface albedo (IISA). Methods for retrieving HHSA and IISA in mountains have not been well-explored. Here, we retrieved HHSA and IISA on sloping terrain from Landsat 8 using a direct estimation algorithm. We simulated a dataset of Landsat top-of-atmosphere (TOA) reflectance and surface albedo with discrete anisotropic radiative transfer (DART) model, for variable atmospheric, vegetation, soil, and topography properties. Then, we used artificial neural networks (ANNs) to derive an empirical relationship between TOA reflectance and surface albedo. The accuracy of our method was verified within situmeasurements: root mean squared error (RMSE) and bias equal to 0.029 and −0.010 for HHSA, and 0.023 and −0.001 for IISA, respectively. Several albedo results (HHSA, IISA, values without topographic consideration) were evaluated and compared. HHSA was found similar to albedo without topographic consideration, but IISA, considered as the “true albedo” for sloping terrain, showed large difference from them. This study demonstrated the feasibility of surface albedo estimation from Landsat TOA reflectance directly in rugged terrains and advanced our understanding of energy budget in mountains.

Most surface–atmosphere radiative transfer models (RTMs) work only for flat surfaces, with the exception being time-consuming 3-D scene-based models. The deficiency of flat-surface RTMs that do not consider topographic effects is that their applications in earth observation and simulation studies are impaired because rugged terrains make up approximately 24% of the global land surface. Another deficiency of most surface–atmosphere RTMs is that they model reflected and emitted (i.e., solar and thermal) radiative transfer processes separately, which limits RTMs in applications, such as fire detection. This study proposes a unified optical–thermal RTM coupling framework (RTM-CF) that considers topographic effects based on the four-stream approximation theory. The framework couples surface–atmosphere RTMs and can simultaneously simulate a set of parameters at the top-of-atmosphere (TOA) and bottom-of-atmosphere (BOA) levels from optical and thermal spectral ranges. These parameters include the TOA directional radiance/reflectance, TOA exitance/albedo, TOA net radiation, surface radiance/reflectance/albedo, surface downward/upward/net radiation, and FAPAR/APAR. The RTM-CF with topographic effects is compared with the well-known 3-D discrete anisotropic radiative transfer (DART) ray-tracing model and validated by field measurements from three steep sites. The evaluation results show that the simulated reflectance, radiance, and radiation fluxes are consistent with the DART results and the field data, with$R^{2}>0.93$and scatter points close to the 1:1 line for all parameters. In this RTM-CF, atmospheric and topographic effects are simultaneously incorporated, and the surface anisotropy is also effectively considered. This framework is highly modularized, which enables it to be easily adapted to different submodels.

Validation of satellite albedo products is an essential step because their quantitative application lie in their ability to record the real state of the earth surface. Upscalingin situmeasurements to the corresponding pixel scale is necessary due to the spatial scale mismatch betweenin situand satellite measurements. Machine learning-based models have been increasingly used for upscaling because they can yield more reliable results than traditional methods. Nevertheless, the main controlling factors on upscaled results have rarely been discussed. This article explores the control factors that bring uncertainties to the upscaled results based on machine learning models. Three machine learning models, including random forest (RF),$k$-nearest neighbor (KNN), and Cubist models, were selected to upscale single sitein situ-based albedo to the coarse pixel scale. The upscaled results were carefully assessed through comparison with pixel scale albedo reference. The results indicate that the accuracy of upscaled results depends on the machine learning models, the inclusion of key variables related to albedo, the dataset selection of these variables, the amount of training data, and the sensitivity of machine learning models to these factors. Despite the dependence on control factors, the machine learning-based upscaling methods generally have excellent applicability across different spatial scales and over other untrained areas. Therefore, they open the door to generating a time series of globally, spatially continuous distributed reference datasets with sufficient length, consistency, and continuity to adequately fulfill the requirement of a comprehensive validation.

A comprehensive assessment of satellite-derived albedo products is undeniably essential for better use consideration and the further refinement of the retrieval algorithm. Although satellite albedo products have been extensively validated over spatially homogeneous areas, it remains a challenge to validate them over rugged terrain. Consequently, the accuracy of satellite albedo products over rugged terrain is still unknown. This study for the first time systematically evaluated two widely used satellite albedo products (i.e., MCD43A3 V006 and GLASS V04 albedo) over mountainous areas with a Mountain Radiation Transfer (MRT) coupled multi-scale validation strategy. Fine-scale albedo was first generated with a root mean square error (RMSE) smaller than 0.0317. Then they were upscaled to the coarse pixel and as the reference data for validation. The validation results indicated that the accuracy of the two products tends to decrease with the increase of means slopes. The RMSE and relative RMSE (RMSER) of full retrieval MCD43A3 C6 black-sky albedo (BSA) and white-sky albedo (WSA) over abrupt slopes (mean slope >10°) increase to 0.0432 and 31.87% and to 0.0436 and 32.21%, respectively. The RMSE and RMSERof high quality GLASS V04 were 0.0452 and 33.71% of BSA and 0.0458 and 33.92 % of WSA respectively over abrupt slopes. Particularly, if the backup retrievals were included over the abrupt slopes, the RMSE and RMSER of MCD43A3 C6 can reach to 0.0600 and 36.92% for BSA and 0.0613 and 37.67% for WSA, and those of GLASS V04 can reach to 0.0567 and 36.28% for BSA and 0.0540 and 35.72% respectively.

A comprehensive assessment of satellite-derived albedo products is undeniably essential for better use consideration and the further refinement of the retrieval algorithm. Although satellite albedo products have been extensively validated over spatially homogeneous areas, it remains a challenge to validate them over rugged terrain. Consequently, the accuracy of satellite albedo products over rugged terrain is still unknown. This study for the first time systematically evaluated two widely used satellite albedo products (i.e., MCD43A3 C6 and Global Land Surface Satellite (GLASS) V04 albedo) over mountainous areas with a mountain radiation transfer (MRT) coupled multiscale validation strategy. Fine-scale albedo was first generated with a root-mean-square error (RMSE) smaller than 0.0317. Then, they were upscaled to the coarse pixel and as the reference data for validation. The validation results indicated that the accuracy of the two products tends to decrease with the increase of means slopes. The RMSE and relative RMSE (RMSER) of full retrieval MCD43A3 C6 black-sky albedo (BSA) and white-sky albedo (WSA) over abrupt slopes (mean slope >10°) increase to 0.0432 and 31.87% and to 0.0436 and 32.21%, respectively. The RMSE and RMSERof high-quality GLASS V04 were 0.0452 and 33.71% of BSA and 0.0458 and 33.92% of WSA, respectively, over abrupt slopes. In particular, if the backup retrievals were included over the abrupt slopes, the RMSE and RMSERof MCD43A3 C6 can reach 0.0600 and 36.92% for BSA and 0.0613 and 37.67% for WSA, respectively, and those of GLASS V04 can reach 0.0567 and 36.28% for BSA and 0.0540 and 35.72%, respectively.

Characterizing the subpixel heterogeneity within satellite pixels is a key issue in validation. Nevertheless, it is challenging due to multi-scale problems in the geological description based on remote sensing. Based on an airborne platform, the multi-scale variation laws of several key indicators in validation including spatial heterogeneity (SH), representativeness errors, and representative area with subpixel size were analyzed and discussed. Furthermore, this article discussed the optimal subpixel size to assess SH within a coarse pixel and the optimal footprint ofin situmeasurements for building dense and sparse validation networks. SH decreases with the increase of subpixel size. And a reduction of about 10% can be obtained from 5 m$\times 5$m to 150 m$\times150$m subpixel size, depending on the degree of SH within the typical satellite pixels. And the sensitiveness of SH to subpixel size decreases gradually with the increasing of subpixel size. Ideally, SH should be assessed using maps with pixel sizes corresponding to the footprint ofin situmeasurements. Regarding the deployment of future validation networks, the footprint ofin situsites should be designed at least larger than 25 m for dense networks. And much larger footprints (e.g., 100 m) are preferred in designing sparse networks. The representativeness error is not fully related to subpixel sizes because it is affected by many factors. The findings are also transferable to model evaluation when comparing model grid values to local observations.

The semiempirical kernel-driven model is commonly used for global surface reflectance characterization because of its simplicity and underlying physical meaning. However, the current kernel-driven reflectance models assume that the terrain is flat and homogeneous, and can induce significant errors in the surface reflectance estimation and subsequent parameter retrievals over rugged terrain. In this study, an improved topography-coupled kernel-driven (TCKD) reflectance model with the correction of diffuse skylight effects was proposed based on the diffused-equivalent slope model (dESM) and RossThick-LiTransit (RTLT) kernel-driven model. The TCKD model's accuracy and effectiveness were evaluated using surface reflectance simulated by the radiosity approach and the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) data. Against simulated data, the results show that the TCKD model can accurately capture the distortion of the reflectance shape and hemispherical distribution caused by the topographic effects. Compared to MODIS data, the TCKD model has an overall better performance than the RTLT model across different spatial scales and land cover types. When the mean slope is larger than 35° at the 500-m resolution, the TCKD model's near-infrared (NIR) root-mean-square error (RMSE) and the regression slope of the fitting line are 0.037 and 0.752, respectively, whereas those of the RTLT model are 0.049 and 0.645. Neglecting the diffuse skylight in the TCKD model can also lead to great bias in the reflectance retrievals. When the mean slope is 31°, as the ratio of diffuse skylight varies from 0 to 1, the NIR RMSE of the TCKD model decreases from 0.012 to 0.005, whereas that increases from 0.012 to around 0.02 if the diffuse skylight effects are neglected. These preliminary results demonstrate that the TCKD model is capable of improving the fitting ability of the kernel-driven model over rugged terrain and provides potentials for better retrieving and interpreting land surface parameters such as land surface albedo in mountainous areas.

The in situ measurements from globally distributed sparse networks provide a valuable data source for the validation of satellite products. However, the representativeness errors resulting from the spatial scale mismatch between in situ-satellite measurements and surface heterogeneity have generally limited past validation to only very few spatially representative sites, which cannot meet the requirement of a comprehensive validation. In response to this challenge, this article offers a strategy for upscaling sparse in situ measurements and removing the impact of representativeness errors on the evaluation of coarse-pixel albedo products. The main idea of the upscaling method is to establish the correspondence relationship between each subpixel albedo time series within a coarse pixel and in situ albedo time series by using high-resolution albedo maps as the prior knowledge. Furthermore, the performance of the upscaling method is carefully evaluated over the sites featured by different degrees of spatial representativeness. The results indicate that the upscaling method improves the representativeness of single-site measurements with respect to a coarse pixel, and the improvement is most significant over the sites with relatively low representativeness. Therefore, the upscaling method is particularly useful for the validation at heterogeneous sites in strengthening the reliability of validation results. It is expected to open the door to maximizing the use of existing sparse networks and generating a time series of globally distributed reference data sets with sufficient length, consistency, and continuity.

The angular and spectral kernel-driven (ASK) model distinguishes soil and vegetation spectral features by the component spectra and is a promising model which combines multisensor data for inversion. However, its global application is limited by the component spectra. This article proposes parameterization of the ASK component spectra of soil and leaf from global spectra libraries as ANGERS, GOSPEL, LOPEX, and USGS. A statistical ratio (y) of various leaf to soil spectra is used to capture their spectral differences and variations, with mean (m) + u (0, ±0.5, ±1) standard deviations (σ) [i.e., y (m + uσ)]. Optimization inversion is applied to determine the ratio candidates y(m + uσ), allowing more tolerance for spectral uncertainty, which releases the semiempirical nature of the kernel-driven model. Simulation data analysis proves its feasibility and good capture of vegetation-soil spectral differences. The model's bidirectional reflectance factor (BRF) fitting error [root-mean-square error (RMSE)] of 0.0245 is slightly larger than the true component spectra of 0.0178, and albedo RMSE is 0.0116 in Black Sky Albedo and 0.0182 in White Sky Albedo. The result also shows its good robustness to the noises, where the====level up to 20% noise conducts a 0.0277 error in BRF fitting and an ignorable influence in albedo. The synergistic-retrieved albedo from multisensor satellite data consists of in situ measurements with an RMSE of 0.0171, compared to 0.0131 from true component spectra retrievals. The new parameterization sacrifices some accuracy, but it is simple and operational for global retrieval with a satisfactory precision.

Rugged terrain significantly complicates the land surface albedo modeling and retrievals in remote sensing. Neglecting the topographic effects may lead to large uncertainties when estimating land surface albedo over rugged terrain. In this study' the sensitivities of snow-free vegetation shortwave albedo to topography are quantitatively investigated and analyzed based on the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) land surface albedo data and the global sensitivity analysis of a mechanistically-based land surface albedo parameterized model over rugged terrain. The results reveal that the topography can account for more than 30% of the total variabilities of the land surface albedo and the topographic effects on land surface albedo cannot be neglected even for the terrain with the mean slope of 10°.

Accurately estimating the spatial–temporal distribution of downward surface shortwave radiation (DSSR) is essential for terrestrial ecological modeling and climate change research. The accurate georegistration of digital elevation model (DEM) has become one of the significant bottlenecks for improving the DSSR accuracy over rugged terrain. To clearly understand and quantitatively evaluate the impact of geolocation bias on the DSSR estimation under clear sky, this letter conducts a systematical simulation research in Dayekou Basin of China based on a developed remote sensing satellite-based DSSR estimation scheme over rugged terrain. The results demonstrate that the proposed approach can accurately capture the high temporal and spatial heterogeneities of DSSR, and the DSSR estimations are sensitive to geolocation bias. When the horizontal bias is lower than half a pixel, the deviations of the direct radiation could lead to above 600 W/m2due to the illumination angle effects and shadow effects. The consequence of the bias on the diffuse and reflected radiation from adjacent terrains is little because of their relatively small values and low-spatial heterogeneities under clear sky in general except for the deep valley areas. The trends of the total radiation errors with the geolocation bias are identical in different days (scenes), and the error is related to the solar zenith angle. In addition, the more rugged the terrain, the greater the influence of geolocation bias on the radiation accuracy.

In[1], the units of sky view factor and terrain view factor are printed incorrectly in the abstract section andFig. 4.

Topographic effects on canopy reflectance play a pivotal role in the retrieval of surface biophysical variables over rugged terrain. In this paper, we proposed a new canopy anisotropic reflectance model for discrete forests, Geometric Optical and Mutual Shadowing and Scattering-from-Arbitrarily-Inclined-Leaves model coupled with Topography (GOSAILT), which considers the effects of slope, aspect, geotropic nature of tree growth, multiple scattering, and diffuse skylight. GOSAILT-simulated areal proportions of four scene components (i.e., sunlit crown, shaded crown, sunlit background, and shaded background) were evaluated using the Geometric Optical model for Sloping Terrains (GOST) model. The canopy reflectances simulated by GOSAILT were validated against two reflectance data sets: Discrete anisotropic radiative transfer (DART) simulations and wide-angle infrared dual-model line/area array scanner (WIDAS) observations. Compared with a horizontal surface, the forest canopy reflectance over a steep slope (60°) is significantly distorted with absolute (relative) bias values of 0.048 (79.60%) and 0.056 (12.02%) for the red and near-infrared (NIR) bands, respectively. The GOSAILT-simulated component areal proportions show close agreements with GOST. Moreover, GOSAILT simulations have high overall accuracy (red band: coefficient of determination (R2) = 0.96; root-mean-square error (RMSE) = 0.003; and mean absolute percentage error (MAPE) = 3.91%; and NIR band: R2= 0.78, RMSE = 0.019; MAPE = 3.94%) when compared with the DART simulations. These extensive validations indicate good performances of GOSAILT in canopy reflectance simulations over sloped surfaces.

Validation of remote sensing albedo products involves comparisons between point-scale in situ observations and footprint-scale satellite retrievals. However, the observed differences between product and in situ observations are not only attributable to intrinsic errors of satellite products but also to inadequate spatial representativeness of in situ observations. Here, representativeness errors of in situ observations and their effects on validation results were quantitatively explored. Furthermore, the contributors and their influences on representativeness errors were quantified. In the case of large representativeness errors, validation result errors are mainly controlled by representativeness errors. When representativeness errors are small, validation result errors are likely affected by other factors and can be so large that cannot be ignored. Surface heterogeneity is most positively related to representativeness errors, followed by the deviation distance of in situ site from the pixel center. The representative area surrounding in situ sites only shows a weak negative correlation with representativeness errors. The range seems to be not a good indicator of spatial representativeness of in situ sites since there is almost no relationship between them. When these factors are combined, surface heterogeneity contributes more to representativeness errors on the 500-m pixel scale, while quantitative impacts of the representative area and location deviation of in situ sites are not fully understood because magnitudes of these effects are dependent on the choice of high-resolution data set. These findings enhance our understanding about spatial representativeness of in situ observations and improve the quality of validation results based on single in situ observations.

Rugged terrain complicates the BRDF modeling mainly by the modulation of sun-target-sensor geometry and shadowing effects. An improved kernel-driven BRDF model coupled with topography (KDCT) is put forward by combining the RTLSR model used in the algorithm for MODIS bidirectional reflectance anisotropies of land surface (AMBRALS) and the anisotropic reflectance model for rugged terrain (dESM). The improved model was compared with the original RTLSR model by using the simulated data based on the radiosity approach and the MODIS reflectance data. The validation results revealed that the improved KDCT model outperforms the RTLSR model without topographic consideration and can significantly improve the ability of the kernel-driven model to process the multi-angular reflectance measurements over rugged terrain.

Light use efficiency model is one of the methods to retrieval regional scale Gross Primary Productivity (GPP). In this study, GPP of the Heihe River Basin in China from 2011 to 2015 were inversed by light use efficiency model. In this kind of the models, Photosynthetic Active Radiation (PAR) and the fraction of absorbed photosynthetically-active radiation (FPAR) were the key parameters. Usually, PAR and FPAR were inversed without distinguishing direct and diffuse radiation. However, several researches show that due to the stronger transmission of diffuse radiation in the canopy and avoidance of the light-saturation phenomenon of direct radiation in the canopy leaves, photosynthesis is more efficient under the action of diffuse radiation. So in this article PAR and FPAR were inversed by models which can distinguish direct and diffuse radiation. And the retrieved daily GPP results were validated by field measurements from flux sites of GPP.

Surface albedo plays an important role in the local- and regional-scale solar radiation budget. However, the in situ measurement of surface albedo over rugged terrain is usually confused by the radiometer placement. In this study, two commonly measured albedos with different sensor configurations were characterized and illustrated based on the radiometer orientation in the illumination and viewing geometry. They are: horizontal-horizontal sensor measured sloping surface albedo (HHSA), and inclined-inclined sensor measured sloping surface albedo (IISA). The 3-D Discrete Anisotropic Radiative Transfer (DART) model simulations were used to exemplified their difference. Results reveal that these two albedos show distinct patterns with slope and aspect. Therefore, the radiometer placement should be considered in the surface albedo measurement over rugged terrain.

Downward surface solar radiation (DSSR) plays an important role in the earth's surface energy budget. However, it has significant spatial-temporal heterogeneity over the rugged terrain. To accurately capture DSSR, many analytical terrain parameter algorithms based on digital elevation models (DEMs) have been proposed. However, the uncertainties of the DSSR components associated with these algorithms remain unclear. In this letter, we compared three types of terrain parameter algorithms and their respective DSSR component uncertainties at different spatial scales by using 3-D discrete anisotropic radiative model simulations under different atmospheric conditions. The comparison results indicated that differences in slopes, sky view factors, and terrain view factors can be up to 4°, 0.165°, and 0.264°, respectively. For a high atmospheric visibility, the maximum discrepancies of direct solar irradiance and adjacent terrain-reflected irradiance over the high reflective surface (e.g., fresh snow and ice) are 26.7 and 42.8 W·m2, respectively. In addition, for a low atmospheric visibility, a maximum difference of 31 W·m2is identified for diffuse skylight. These uncertainties are nonnegligible when using a high-resolution DEM (e.g., 30 m), but as the DEM resolution becomes coarser, the uncertainties decrease.

Heterogeneous terrain significantly complicates signals received by airborne or satellite sensors. It has been demonstrated that both solar direct beam and diffuse skylight illumination conditions are significant factors influencing the anisotropy of reflectance over mountainous areas. Several models and methods have been developed to account for topographic effects on surface reflectance at the pixel level in remote sensing. However, subtopographic effects are generally neglected for low-spatial-resolution pixels due to the complex law of radiative transfer and the limitations of higher spatial resolution digital elevation models, which can lead to deviations in reflectance estimation. Accurately estimating the subtopographic effects on anisotropic reflectance over composite sloping terrain under different illumination conditions presents a challenge for remote sensing models and applications. In this paper, the diffused equivalent slope model (dESM) was developed, which is an anisotropic reflectance simulation model coupled with diffuse skylight over composite sloping terrain. The corresponding subtopographic impact factor was also proposed to exhibit how microslope topography affects reflectance over composite sloping terrain under different illumination conditions. Simulated reflectance data sets simulated by the radiosity method and Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer reflectance data were used to evaluate the performance of the dESM model. The results reveal that the dESM model can accurately capture the reflectance anisotropy over composite sloping terrain under different illumination conditions, and the subtopographic impact factor can account for the effects of microslope topography, shadow, and illumination conditions.

A well understanding of topography effect on the forest reflectance is critical for biophysical parameters retrieval over rugged area. In this paper, a new hybrid bidirectional reflectance distribution function (BRDF) model coupled the geometric optical mutual shadowing (GOMS) and scattering from arbitrarily inclined leaves (SAIL) models with topography consideration (GOSAILT) for sloping forest was proposed.

In this paper, the land surface bidirectional reflectance distribution function (BRDF) and albedo on a small timescale are retrieved by the multisensor combined BRDF inversion (MCBI) model with improved accuracy. The accumulation period for this BRDF/albedo retrieval is shortened to 8 and 4 days with data from four satellite sensors, the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectraradiometer (MODIS), Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer (AVHRR), Visible Infrared Imaging Radiometer (VIIRS), and Medium Resolution Spectral Imager (MERSI), to obtain the dynamic features of land surfaces. All the four sensors have high revisit frequencies and dense angular sampling. The MCBI model provides an algorithm to form a virtual MODIS observation network with these four sensors, resulting in a multiband and multiangle sampling reflectance data set. It also provides a multisensor reflectance quality control index, the net information index (NII), for a robust BRDF/albedo retrieval. The performance of the MCBI is assessed by comparisons with MODIS BRDF/albedo product and the in situ measurement. The results show that the highly frequent angular sampling with four sensors allows for a full retrieval of BRDF/albedo with a shorter accumulation period of 8 and 4 days. The NII reduces the uncertainties when using different sensors' reflectance and allows for a high-quality BRDF/albedo retrieval. It reveals that the MCBI has the potential to generate a multisensor-based BRDF/albedo on a small timescale. The MCBI is a key algorithm for the BRDF/albedo product in China's multisource data synergized quantitative remote sensing production system and operationally implemented to generate a global product.

Surface albedo is a critical variable in the Earth's energy balance. To evaluate the quality of albedo retrieved from satellite data is crucial. In this study, the direct comparison was carried out to assess the 5-day albedo product retrieved from the Multi-sensor Combined BRDF Inversion (MCBI) model. Different land covers, such as, grassland, deciduous and coniferous forests are considered in the validation. The results show that MCBI albedos agree well with ground-based albedo measurements.

The state of the land surface and the water cycle over the South and East Asia can be determined by space observation. New or significantly improved algorithms have been developed and evaluated against ground measurements. Variables retrieved include land surface properties, i.e. NDVI, LAI, FPAR, albedo, soil moisture, glacier and lake levels. Based on these biophysical parameters derived from microwave and optical remote sensing observations, a hybrid remotely sensed evapotranspiration (ET) estimation model named ETMonitor was developed and applied to estimate the daily actual ET of the Southeast Asia at a spatial resolution of 1 km. The changes in glaciers and lakes on the Tibetan Plateau, and the drainage links between glaciers and lakes are determined in this climate-sensitive region.

This study describes the use of ground-based albedometer measurement based on the automatic weather stations (AWS) for validating MCD43A3 and GLASS albedo products over heterogeneous landscapes in Heihe river Basin, China. Because the footprint of ground observed albedo was far less than the spatial resolution of albedo products, high-resolution albedo imageries were used as an upscaling bridge to reduce the scale discrepancy. Based on this scheme, we present the results from an accuracy assessment of MODIS and GLASS. The validation results show that MODIS and GLASS have RMSEs less than 0.05 over large areas and over a full year of measurements.

The influence of topography on land-surface bidirectional reflectance and albedo should be considered in rugged terrain. However, land-surface albedo algorithms neglect topographic effects, leading to errors in estimating the albedo in rugged terrain. This letter investigates the Angular Bin (AB) algorithm of land-surface albedo and shows that it should be improved when albedo is estimated in rugged terrain. The Terrain AB (TAB), an improved algorithm for albedo estimation with the AB algorithm and digital elevation model (DEM) data set, is presented in this letter. The accuracy and performance of the TAB algorithm was investigated by using the simulated DEM and Bidirectional Reflectance Function as well as the MODIS daily reflectance of the Heihe River Basin. The results show that the TAB algorithm has a better albedo estimation performance in rugged terrain and gives an acceptable accuracy.

Land surface albedo is critical in earth radiation budget and global climate monitoring. At present, models and algorithms for land-surface albedo retrieval from diverse satellites have been well developed. However, limited sampling angles from mono-sensor and coarse temporal resolution restrict the further promotion and application of albedo. Multi-sensor observations offer more information of land surface anisotropy and result in multi-angular, multi-spectral, high temporal resolution measurements. Modeling BRDF and albedo with multi-sensor data presents a unique opportunity to improve the temporal resolution and recover the consistency of surface albedo. This paper proposes a novel Multi-Angular and Multi-Band inversion model for BRDF and albedo retrieval with multiple sensors. The preliminary result based on MODIS and AVHRR band reflectance indicates that the model could obtain higher temporal resolution albedo with the same or even higher accuracy when compared with MCD43B3 albedo product.

Albedo is essential in earth radiation budget and global climate monitoring. GLASS albedo is a newly developed global broadband land-surface albedo product with 1-km spatial resolution and 1-day temporal resolution. AB algorithm is employed to generate daily albedo product by building a linear regression relationship between narrowband directional reflectance and broadband albedo. AB algorithm avoids the restrictions on the observing angles, but suffers from the assumption that the land surface should be homogeneous and flat without terrain relief. In our research, we proposed a technique to improve AB algorithm for retrieving albedo in rugged terrain, which is called TAB algorithm. The preliminary validation using simulation data indicated that the accuracy of AB algorithm could be significantly improved when the terrain effect is considered.

GLASS albedo is a newly developed global daily land- surface broadband albedo product with 1-km spatial resolution. There are two main deficiencies in GLASS albedo products: 1) large areas of missing data mainly caused by cloud coverage; 2) sharp fluctuations in time series due to noise and uncertainties in inversion algorithm. This paper proposed a temporal filtering algorithm to reconstruct daily albedo series from GLASS albedo products. Validation results show that this algorithm can fill data gaps and smooth albedo series effectively.

This paper proposes a new multi-angular & multi-spectral BRDF model (ASK Model) base on the kernel-driven conception, and outlines an algorithm suitable for broadband albedo retrieval with the new model. By adding component spectra into kernels as prior known driven variables, the new model express BRDF as a linear combination of wavelength independent kernel coefficients and kernels expressed as functions of both observation geometry and wavelength.

Some typical topographic correction methods, such as cosine model, C correction model, SCS model, SCS+C model and Minnaert model, have been assessed in detail in this paper using GOMS model. A BRF model also presented for topographic effects eliminating and its application in Jiangxi rugged area. The result shows that the BRF model has the topographic correction ability.

In rugged area, the solar radiance is accepted by the sensor after a complicated interactive process between solar incidence, atmosphere and earth surface target. In this paper radiance received by one earth target is analyzed. Solar direct radiance, sky diffuse radiance and background terrain reflective radiance were obtained using a fit model. Combined with radiative transfer code and bi-directinal reflectance factor, atmospheric and topographic effects of Landsat/TM that covers Jiangxi rugged area had been eliminated. Several criterions were taken as the correction result validation. This paper shows that the method has robust atmospheric and topographic correction ability.

The consistent end-to-end simulation of them is an important task, sometimes the only way for the adaptation and optimisation of a sensor and its observation conditions, the choice and test of algorithms for data processing, error estimation and the evaluation of the capabilities of the whole sensor system. It is essential to accomplish simulation of atmospheric radiative transfer, if a complete imaging simulating system is to be expected. Based on given resolution and directional capabilities of the instrument, and combination with land surface temperature and emissivity data obtained from airborne imagery, TOA (top of atmosphere) radiance images have been simulated pixel by pixel coupling the atmospheric radiative transfer analytic model extended from MODTRAN4 and the atmospheric adjacency effect model derived from point spread function (for atmospheric directional and adjacency effect). In this way, all major scattering and emission contribution of atmosphere were considered. Through analysing results, it indicates that analytic model and adjacency effect model is more adequate for thermal infrared imaging simulation than others existing models.

In China, one of the most common ecological problems of inland water bodies is represented by the eutrophication which diminishes water quality. And the chlorophyll-laden water becomes an obvious sign. Chlorophyll-a concentration measurement is usually used for assessing tropic status of lakes. The development of spectral resolution enables hyperspectral technology possible to monitor water quality successfully, which is based on developing relationships between radiance/reflectance in single band or band ratios and chlorophyll concentration. In this paper, a spectral unmixing model was established based on single-phase field hyperspectral data. Three data types were supported for this model: original data, normalization data and differential data. Selected end-member from known reflectance spectrum, we retrieved chlorophyll-a concentration. The result shows the spectral unmixing model based on differential data gives the best result. Validated this model and shows a good precision and stabilization. Finally, three-phase field hyperspectral datum were processed and chlorophyll-a concentration was extracted using the best model. The result shows that spectral unmixing model is a feasible model in the practical application of remote sensing water quality monitoring.

The water quality of Taihu Lake is declining due to eutrophication, and the chlorophyll-laden water becomes an obvious sign. As to reflectance spectra of water vary with concentrations of organic and inorganic sediments, in this paper field reflectance spectra have been applied for monitoring the water quality of Taihu Lake, China. As the key-monitoring index, the chlorophyll-a contents were evaluated by linear spectral unmixing using water and chlorophyll-a endmember spectra of known content the results were compared to laboratory analyses of in situ, water samples.