Users are more likely to experience visually induced motion sickness (VIMS) during passive motion in virtual reality (VR), particularly in passive virtual driving scenarios. To solve this challenge, we propose a Multi-sensory Simulation of Wind Sensation (MSSWS) method to alleviate VIMS symptoms by enhancing the user’s sense of embodiment (SoE). The method utilizes low-fidelity airflow simulation to align vestibular perception with visual, auditory, and tactile cues. Then, we developed an interactive wind simulation helmet that can generate low-fidelity airflow along four directional axes around the user’s head, and implemented a passive virtual motorcycle riding environment with synchronized visual and auditory feedback matching the airflow patterns. A user experiment was conducted to systematically evaluate the effectiveness of MSSWS in enhancing SoE and reducing VIMS under various conditions, including helmet activation states, speed variations, and movement directions, with additional validation conducted in a Cave Automatic Virtual Environment (CAVE). Experimental results show that MSSWS significantly enhances sense of presence and SoE while substantially reducing VIMS during passive navigation. Notably, MSSWS shows significantly greater effects on VIMS in high-risk conditions characterized by rapid speed changes and multi-directional movement.

Activities conducted in games utilizing immersive virtual reality (VR) environment commonly require users to actively navigate from a first-person perspective. The sense of self-motion from active navigation may contribute to flow experience, but it also increases the risk of VR sickness. Clarifying their underlying relationships can help optimize the design of VR games. To explore this issue, this paper developed an experimental VR environment supporting active navigation at different speeds and subsequently performed two experiments. Experiment 1 first examined the effect of self-motion speed on flow experience and VR sickness. Experiment 2 examined the potential moderating effect of VR sickness susceptibility in the relationship between self-motion speed and flow experience. The results showed that the effect of self-motion speed on flow experience was moderated by VR sickness susceptibility. For participants with low susceptibility, self-motion speed had a significantly positive effect on flow experience, and for participants with high susceptibility, the effect was not significant.

Virtual reality (VR), particularly through multi-user VR systems, enhances collaboration and immersion. However, multi-team VR systems (MTVR), which allow several teams to interact, either by cooperating or competing, are less studied. Drawing inspiration from concepts in game theory, specifically the positive-sum game (PSG) and zero-sum game (ZSG), this study investigated the impact of inter-team competition modes at the team level and haptic feedback at the individual level on team flow and individual flow for the first time. An experimental MTVR that supports inter-team competition in a two-person vs two-person pattern was implemented first. Then, a$2 \times 2$within-subject experiment was conducted to examine the effects of different inter-team competition modes (PSG/ZSG) and haptic feedback (on/off). The results based on 188 participants indicate that the PSG mode leads to significantly higher levels of collective ambition and improved team relationships compared to the ZSG mode. Furthermore, providing haptic feedback can significantly enhance awareness of shared and personal task goals, resulting in more cautious performance during teamwork.

Empathy and identity recognition are two core social interaction factors that greatly affect efficiency and effectiveness. The selection of a profile picture in social media is crucial as it serves as a visual representation of virtual identity. It not only reflects the user's personality but also influences the level of empathy and identification that others feel toward them. However, the potential impact of profile pictures with different styles (e.g., real faces, cartoon faces, and landscape images) on empathy and identity recognition is still unclear. To explore its effects, a controlled laboratory experiment and an ecological online experiment were conducted. Participants were shown a picture each time, informed to imagine interacting with the person using it as his/her profile picture, and instructed to rate an item from the basic empathy scale (BES) based on it. After rating all pictures, users then completed an identity recognition task. Results show that participants’ empathy scores for users with cartoon or real face profile pictures are greater than those with landscape profile pictures. In addition, participants performed better in identity recognition for users with real face or landscape images as profile pictures than for those with cartoon face profile pictures. Moreover, users of social media often make social categorizations (i.e., in-group/out-group categorization) based on the social identities expressed by their profile pictures. Our results also indicate that the affective empathy scale rating score was positively associated with the degree to which users of the corresponding profile pictures were categorized as in-group members.

Human cognition and behavior can be unconsciously affected by personal avatars in the virtual world, a phenomenon known as the Proteus Effect. When using first-person non-human avatars, the characteristics of virtual hands may also induce relevant cognitive and even behavioral patterns in real human hands. Therefore, evaluating human-avatar gesture consistency may be a potentially effective method for objectively assessing the Proteus Effect when using non-human avatars. To explore this question, we first created human and non-human avatars, including three animals. Then, we constructed a dataset of hand gestures and trained a model to dynamically recognize real-hand gestures that were consistent with corresponding avatar hands. Next, we designed a virtual reality experimental task involving grasping objects with intuitive gestures and performed a 2 (avatar type: human/non-human) $* 2$ (virtual hand: presence/absence of spontaneous movement) within-subject experiment to examine the effects of avatar characteristics on self-illusion and human-avatar gesture consistency. The results showed that participants performed a significantly larger percentage of gestures that were consistent with their currently used avatars. Additionally, participants did experience self-illusion when using non-human avatars, although the levels were significantly lower than those when using human avatars. Therefore, self-illusion may serve as a perceptual antecedent of the Proteus Effect, even with non-human avatars, inadvertently altering the behavioral gestures of their real hands. In conclusion, detecting human-avatar gesture consistency can help evaluate the Proteus Effect.

Exploring effective approaches to enhance face-to-face interactions and interpersonal relationships is an important topic in the applications of affective computing. According to the co-actualization model, we propose a face-to-face co-participation serious game for relationship enhancement, with a focus on battling COVID-19. Moreover, a prototype system is developed using an immersive virtual environment and a low-cost brain-computer interface. Through this system, a dynamic flow experience enhancement tool is utilized to involve partners in the cooperative task. To evaluate the system performance, two studies are conducted with schoolmates as participants. Study 1 compares the cooperative and competitive modes, and demonstrates that the former elicited higher level of decision-making challenge and affections, which are beneficial for forming relationships. Study 2 further examines the effect of the dynamic flow enhancement tool in the cooperative task and the results show its effectiveness in promoting flow experience, perceived closeness, and intimacy in relationships. Given this short-term participation, participants felt a greater sense of closeness and intimacy than they had before the test. In conclusion, our proposed system is effective in enhancing schoolmate relationships.

The flow experience-performance link is commonly found weak in virtual environments (VEs). The weak association model (WAM) suggests that distraction caused by disjointed features may be associated with the weak association. People characterized by field independent (FI) or field dependent (FD) cognitive style have different abilities in handling sustained attention, thus they may perform differently in the flow-performance link. To explore the role of the field dependence-independence (FDI) construct on the flow-performance link in virtual reality (VR), we developed a VR experimental environment, based on which two empirical studies were performed. Study 1 revealed FD individuals have higher dispersion degree of fixations and showed a weaker flow-performance link. Next, we provide visual cues that utilize distractors to achieve more task-oriented attention. Study 2 found it helps strengthen the task performance, as well as the flow-performance link of FD individuals without increasing distraction. This paper helps draw conclusions on the effects of human diversity on the flow-performance link in VEs and found ways to design a VR system according to individual characteristics.

Weak association model indicates that distraction caused by the disjunction between the primary task and interactive artifacts may be a key factor directly leading to weak association between flow and task performance in virtual reality (VR) activities. To test the idea, this paper proposed a VR visual search paradigm based on which we constructed a VR oceanic treasure hunting system. Experiment 1 proved that distraction caused by the incongruence was indeed a direct antecedent of weak association. Next, we slightly adjusted the system by providing visual cues to achieve task-oriented selective attention. Experiment 2 found this helped enhance the task performance without damaging flow experience.

Many studies conducted in non-virtual activities have shown that flow significantly influences performance, yet studies in virtual activities often reveal only a weak association. This paper begins by building a theoretical explanatory model, and then conducts 3 empirical studies to explore this question. Study 1 exams the mechanism of weak association in two virtual activities. Study 2 tests the effectiveness of a potential approach to strengthen this association. In Study 3 we applied our proposed model and design approach to optimize a VR tennis game. Results show that the influence of flow on performance was not significant in those virtual activities where the primary task and the operation of interactive artifacts were less congruent such that the artifacts can lead to flow experience that is independently of the primary task. Our research offers a theoretical and empirical basis on how to optimize virtual environment design and maximize positive effect of the flow experience.