Due to the limited resolution of both cameras and displays, acuity of artificial vision systems is currently well below the human eye. Visual acuity, in cameras as well as in animal eyes, can be increased by making smaller receptors or bigger eyes. In some applications, the size of the camera is constrained, so alternative solutions must be sought. This paper presents a robotic dual-camera vision system whose design is inspired by the visual system of jumping spiders (Salticidaefamily). The system is composed of a telephoto camera whose field of view (FOV) can be moved within the larger FOV of a wide-angle camera and allows to form a high-resolution image, i.e., an image with the FOV of the wide-angle camera, yet having the same resolution as the telephoto camera. We describe the design of the robotic system, the direct and inverse kinematics, and the image processing algorithms that allow to build the high-resolution image. Images from experiments are presented, together with a discussion on sources of errors and possible solutions. The system is particularly useful for fixed-camera monitoring or teleoperation applications, such as remote surveillance and minimally invasive surgery. The system achieves seven times higher resolution than typical commercial endoscopes.

Some phases of laparoscopic interventions, such as suturing, require precise and dexterous movements that are difficult to perform by means of rigid instruments. Multi-DOF hand-held instruments and teleoperated systems have been developed to increase movement dexterity. In this paper, we present the design of a novel hand-held robotic instrument that can be operated by the surgeon with one hand only, while standing at the operating table and acting on a traditional laparoscopic instrument with the other hand. Its main advantages are the low weight, achieved by dislocating the motors and using a flexible transmission, and the possibility to switch end-effector, changing the instrument type according to the phase of the intervention. The instrument can be used easily and rapidly, since it does not require long or complex set-up procedures. We describe the instrument design, the development of the first prototype and compare it to rigid instruments in the ability to approach sutures at various angles.

Remote manipulation tasks in the small scale can often not be performed autonomously, due to the unstructured nature of the environments and the limited capabilities of sensor and localization technologies. For these tasks, teleoperated systems are used, in which the human operator is integral part of the control. In time-delayed teleoperation, the operator gradually adopts discrete control strategies, such as 'move-and-wait'. In this paper, we present and compare three different control strategies for driving a nanomanipulation system with direct vision feedback. Two strategies are based on a fixed step size to move the manipulator, while the third uses a variable step size. The strategies are compared on a 2D fine positioning task. Experimental results are in agreement with Fitts' law and show that the third strategy, besides allowing movements of size ranging across several orders of magnitude, also allows to complete the fine positioning task in less time. The control strategies can be used in general to control vision-guided teleoperation systems affected by time delay.

Minimally invasive surgery (MIS) has become very common in recent years, thanks to the many advantages it provides for patients. Since it is difficult for surgeons to learn and master this technique, several training methods and metrics have been proposed, both to improve the surgeon's abilities and also to assess his/her skills. This paper presents the use of the WB-1R (Waseda bioinstrumentation system no.1 refined), which was developed at Waseda University, Tokyo, to investigate and analyze a surgeon's movements and performance. Specifically, the system can measure the movements of the head, the arms, and the hands, as well as several physiological parameters. In this paper we present our experiment to evaluate a surgeon's ability to handle surgical instruments and his/her depth perception using a laparoscopic view. Our preliminary analysis of a subset of the acquired data (i.e. comfort of the subjects; the amount of time it took o complete each exercise; and respiration) clearly shows that the expert surgeon and the group of medical students perform very differently. Therefore, WB-1R (or, better, a newer version tailored specifically for use in the operating room) could provide important additional information to help assess the experience and performance of surgeons, thus leading to the development of a global performance index for surgeons during MIS. These analyses and modeling, moreover, are an important step towards the automatization and the robotic assistance of the surgical gesture.

We describe the design and results achieved in the development of a semi-automatic mechatronic tool for computer-assisted endoscopy. The aim of our research is to reduce the risk of damage to delicate anatomical parts in minimally invasive surgical interventions. To this purpose, in a stand-alone configuration, the mechatronic tool is able to detect contact between the steerable tip and surrounding tissues. With the addition of a localizer and an external control unit, a collision-avoidance mechanism prevents contact with pre-selected danger regions of the anatomy. This paper is focused on the architectural and functional description and on the experimental evaluation of the collision-avoidance mechanism. The results demonstrate that the endoscope is suitable for clinical practice, both in terms of spatial accuracy and reaction speed.

This paper describes a novel mechatronic tool for arthroscopy, which is at the same time a smart tool for traditional arthroscopy and the main component of a system for computer-assisted arthroscopy. The mechatronic arthroscope has a cable-actuated servomotor-driven multi-joint mechanical structure, is equipped with a position sensor measuring the orientation of the tip and with a force sensor detecting possible contact with delicate tissues in the knee, and incorporates an embedded microcontroller for sensor signal processing, motor driving and interfacing with the surgeon and/or the system control unit. When used manually, the mechatronic arthroscope enhances the surgeon's capabilities by enabling him/her to easily control tip motion and to prevent undesired contacts. When the tool is integrated in a complete system for computer-assisted arthroscopy, the trajectory of the arthroscope is reconstructed in real time by an optical tracking system using infrared emitters located in the handle, providing advantages in terms of improved intervention accuracy. The computer-assisted arthroscopy system comprises an image processing module for segmentation and three-dimensional reconstruction of preoperative computer tomography or magnetic resonance images, a registration module for measuring the position of the knee joint, tracking the trajectory of the operating tools, and matching preoperative and intra-operative images, and a human-machine interface that displays the enhanced reality scenario and data from the mechatronic arthroscope in a friendly and intuitive manner. By integrating preoperative and intra-operative images and information provided by the mechatronic arthroscope, the system allows virtual navigation in the knee joint during the planning phase and computer guidance by augmented reality during the intervention. This paper describes in detail the characteristics of the mechatronic arthroscope and of the system for computer-assisted arthroscopy and discusses experimental results obtained with a preliminary version of the tool and of the system.