Learning physics is often difficult for students because concepts such as electricity, magnetism and sound, cannot be seen with the naked eye. Emerging technologies such as Augmented Reality (AR) can transform education by making challenging concepts visible and accessible to novices. We present a Hololens-based augmented reality system where collaborators learn about the invisible electromagnetism phenomena involved in audio speakers, and we measure the benefits of AR technology through quantitative and qualitative methods. Specifically, we measure learning (knowledge gains and transfer) and collaborative knowledge exchange behaviors. Our results indicate that, while AR generally provides a novelty effect, specific educational AR visualizations can be both beneficial and detrimental to learning - they helped students to learn spatial content and structural relationships, but hindered their understanding of kinesthetic content. Furthermore, AR facilitated learning in collaborations by providing representational common ground, which improved communication and peer teaching. We discuss these effects, as well as identify factors that have positive impact (e.g., co-located representations, easier access to resources, better grounding) or negative impact (e.g., tunnel vision, overlooking kinesthetic feedback) on student collaborative learning with augmented reality applications.

Research suggests that the socioeconomic status (SES) of students plays a role in teacher perceptions, but it is unclear if virtual simulation technologies can detect this bias. In this exploratory study, a convenience sample of former and current teachers was asked to evaluate students’ performance in a virtually simulated classroom environment. Teachers using the virtual classroom exhibited biased judgements when shown students from varying SES backgrounds who made equivalent progress on a literacy task. Most teachers judged low SES students as making more progress than high SES students. Teachers reported feeling immersed in the experience, and immersion was correlated with bias in teacher judgements. This underscores the value of immersive simulations as a mechanism for inducing realistic situations that draw out unconscious biases. This approach may be of particular value when teachers must recognize that they have biases, as a necessary step in unlearning these by practicing unbiased strategies in simulated environments, with the aim of transfer to real world classrooms.

Augmented Reality (AR) technology is gaining popularity and adoption by educational pioneers. While there is great excitement about this technology, there is also a lack of systematic understanding of what makes this technology effective or ineffective for education, and the practical and systemic challenges of implementing it at scale in classroom settings. In this research we provide a synthesis of empirical scientific findings about the factual benefits and detriments of this technology (from a dataset of 2023 academic papers, of which 39 were analyzed in depth), and of public opinions about augmented reality in education practice (gathered from a dataset of 86 websites and blog posts, of which 53 were analyzed in depth). We contribute a list of specific cognitive, motivational and social processes that are enhanced by AR technology. We also identify popular curriculum topics and popular AR applications, as well as summarize several factors that are important for educators to consider for integrating AR into classrooms.

In this paper we contribute a literature review and organization framework for classifying the collaboration needs and features that should be considered when designing headset-based augmented reality (AR) experiences for collocated settings. In recent years augmented reality technology has been experiencing significant growth through the emergence of headsets that allow gestural interaction, and AR designers are increasingly interested in using this technology to enhance collaborative activities in a variety of physical environments. However, collaborative AR applications need to contain features that enhance collaboration and satisfy needs that are present during the group activities. When AR designers lack an understanding of what collaborators need during an interaction, or what features have already been designed to solve those needs, then AR creators will spend time redesigning features that have already been created, or worse, create applications that do not contain necessary features. While much work has been done on designing virtual reality (VR) collaborative environments, AR environments are a relatively newer design space, and designers are lacking a comprehensive framework for describing needs that arise during collaborative activities and the features that could be designed into AR applications to satisfy those needs. In this paper we contribute a literature review of 92 papers in the areas of augmented reality and virtual reality, and we contribute a list of design features and needs that are helpful to consider when designing for headset-based collaborative AR experiences.

Augmented reality (AR) applications are growing in popularity in educational settings. While the effects of AR experiences on learning have been widely studied, there is relatively less research on understanding the impact of AR on the dynamics of co-located collaborative learning, specifically in the context of novices programming robots. Educational robotics are a powerful learning context because they engage students with problem solving, critical thinking, STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, Mathematics) concepts, and collaboration skills. However, such collaborations can suffer due to students having unequal access to resources or dominant peers. In this research we investigate how augmented reality impacts learning and collaboration while peers engage in robot programming activities. We use a mixed methods approach to measure how participants are learning, manipulating resources, and engaging in problem solving activities with peers. We investigate how these behaviors are impacted by the presence of augmented reality visualizations, and by participants? proximity to resources. We find that augmented reality improved overall group learning and collaboration. Detailed analysis shows that AR strongly helps one participant more than the other, by improving their ability to learn and contribute while remaining engaged with the robot. Furthermore, augmented reality helps both participants maintain a common ground and balance contributions during problem solving activities. We discuss the implications of these results for designing AR and non-AR collaborative interfaces.

EmotoTent is an interactive socio-emotional learning system developed in response to escalating levels of violence, inequality and marginalization in schools seen in the early 21st Century. The system is inspired by advances in biosensing wearables, tattoo displays, brain sensors, robotic agents, artificial intelligence (AI), gestural interaction and 3D holographic displays. By 2030, technological advances will enable us to prototype and investigate questions related to experiential and embodied emotional learning; emotion-based human-computer interaction, affective biosensing, empathetic AI agents, and 3D interactive holographic environments. We envision EmotoTent as a modular, emotion-sensing Holodeck. In the EmotoTent program children learn and practice emotion regulation and empathy with peers, pets and a robotic dog agent in ways that are experiential, embodied and playful. We propose EmotoTent as a core element of a K-6 socio-emotional learning curriculum designed to improve school culture through the enhancement of children's ability to regulate emotions and interact with human and non-human species with empathy and compassion. Enhancing these qualities has been shown to lead to reductions in violence and bullying, racism, gender inequality and other forms of marginalization. We predict that the EmotoTent socio-emotional learning program will improve school cultures and create a foundation for children's lifelong well-being.

Emerging technologies such as Augmented Reality (AR), have the potential to radically transform education by making challenging concepts visible and accessible to novices. In this project, we have designed a Hololens-based system in which collaborators are exposed to an unstructured learning activity in which they learned about the invisible physics involved in audio speakers. They learned topics ranging from spatial knowledge, such as shape of magnetic fields, to abstract conceptual knowledge, such as relationships between electricity and magnetism. We compared participants' learning, attitudes and collaboration with a tangible interface through multiple experimental conditions containing varying layers of AR information. We found that educational AR representations were beneficial for learning specific knowledge and increasing participants' self-efficacy (i.e., their ability to learn concepts in physics). However, we also found that participants in conditions that did not contain AR educational content, learned some concepts better than other groups and became more curious about physics. We discuss learning and collaboration differences, as well as benefits and detriments of implementing augmented reality for unstructured learning activities.

Handheld augmented reality (AR) is a unique medium that can be helpful for young children's entertainment and education, but to achieve the benefits of this technology, experiences need to be appropriately designed for young children's developing skills. In the current research, we are interested in identifying and quantifying the usability problems that are encountered by children using handheld AR applications. We have developed a qualitative coding scheme for detecting AR usability problems from video observations of user interactions. We then applied the coding scheme to extract usability problems encountered by children aged 5-10 years old as they played with a handheld AR game. Through triangulation with performance data, we have detected usability problems related to AR and non-AR components of the experience. Our analysis found positive and negative correlations between usability problems and child age, and found that children experienced a variety of problems such as grip and posture strains, inabilities to recover from various types of tracking loss, difficulties orienting their body around the gameboard, etc. This work is the first in a series of studies applying the qualitative coding for understanding young children's ability to use handheld AR applications.

The EmbodySuit augmented human system allows students to experience life from the perspectives of different organisms, by virtually and physically becoming birds, spiders, ants and even bacteria. Inspired by current advances in nanorobotics, Star Trek's holodeck and the Magic school bus, Embodysuit makes learning embodied and experiential. The student becomes a real organism, part of a real, natural ecosystem. The student's senses are adapted to those of the organism, and the student's actions map to the actions of an organism-sized robot inside a real environment. Our system is based on our projection of advances that will occur in the next 35 years in augmented reality, cybernetics and micro robotics. By about 2050 EmbodySuit type systems will be feasible to prototype, enabling us to address key research questions in classroom scientific inquiry; experiential and embodied learning; technology development; and design for 3D embodied cyber-systems.

Augmented reality technology is a unique medium that can be helpful for young children's entertainment and education, but in order to achieve the benefits of this technology, augmented reality experiences need to be appropriately designed for young children's developing physical and cognitive skills. In the present study we investigated how 5-10 year-old children react to typical handheld augmented reality interaction techniques such as crosshair selection and finger selection, in AR environments that require them to change perspective or not. Our analysis shows significant impacts of age upon AR performance, with young children having slower selection times, more tracking losses, and taking longer to recover tracking. Significant differences were also found between AR interaction technique conditions, with finger selection being faster than crosshair selection, and interactions which required changes in perspective taking longer, generating more tracking losses, and more errors in selection. Furthermore, by analyzing children's performance in relation to metrics of physical and cognitive development, we identified correlations between AR interaction techniques performance and developmental tests of spatial relations, block construction and visuomotor precision. Gender differences were analyzed but no significant effects were detected.

In recent years, augmented reality (AR) applications for children's entertainment have been gaining popularity, and educational organizations are increasingly interested in applying this technology to children's educational games. In this paper we describe our collaboration with teachers and game designers, in order to explore educational potential for AR technology. This paper specifically investigates the topics of: What mathematics curriculum topics should technological innovations address in the Grade 1-3 classrooms? Which of the topics are suitable for AR games? And, how can we facilitate an efficient dialogue between educators and game designers?

Cyberchase Shape Quest is an augmented reality math app from PBS KIDS and THIRTEEN that exposes elementary-school children to three-dimensional immersive puzzle worlds, teaching geometry and engaging spatial cognition skills through the use of augmented reality (AR) technology. Designed for children 6-8 years old, the app features 3 games, Patch the Path, Feed the Critters and Hide & Seek. In Patch the Path, players to use a tablet device's camera and a printable game board to interact with 3D puzzles within five different virtual environments, over 30 different levels. While playing, children must engage their spatial memory, visualization, and planning skills to successfully complete each level of the game. In this demo, we focus mainly on Patch the Path, highlighting the game design and the roles of prototyping and formative research during development.

In this paper we present our experience of eliciting metaphors through the process of game design with children. For the purpose of determining a set of user interactions desired in children's augmented-reality experiences, we have conducted a study in which children used craft materials to design augmented-reality games. Game interactions and mappings between physical and virtual worlds were then analyzed to reveal metaphors in children's thinking. We describe the wide range of elicited metaphors, and argue for the use of game design as a process for metaphor elicitation.

Augmented reality is increasingly reaching young users such as elementary-school and high-school children, as their parents and teachers become aware of the technology and its potential for education. Although research has shown that AR systems have the potential to improve student learning, the educator community does not clearly understand the educational impact of AR, nor the factors which impact the educational effectiveness of AR. In this poster, we analyse 32 publications that have previously compared learning effects of AR vs non-AR applications. We identify a list of positive and negative impacts of AR on student learning, and identify potential underlying causes for these effects. Our vision is that educational initiatives will exploit these factors, in order to realize the full potential of AR to enrich learner's lives.

Augmented reality (AR) designers have great potential to enrich children's lives through AR experiences in education and entertainment. A significant difficulty in designing for children is that tremendous physical and cognitive development occurs across the first 10 years of life, and the changes in children's capabilities and limitations impact how these users respond to AR designs. Currently, little is known about how developmental changes relate to AR designs, or what AR designs are effective for young children. In this work, we focus on children 6–9 years old, presenting several concepts from developmental psychology and discussing how these relate to AR designs. Specifically, we investigate children's skills in the categories of motor abilities, spatial cognition, attention, logic and memory, and we discuss the relationship of these skills to current and hypothetical AR designs. Through this work, we intend to strengthen the field's understanding of AR usability and design, resulting in the generation of effective AR experiences for young users.

The use of small display devices is becoming more prevalent in our daily lives, such as smart phones, ultramobile PCs, and even head-mounted displays. Usually, the graphical user interface components shown on these displays are small and often difficult to interact with. Although some prior work has shown that Fitts' law does not hold for small target size, a detailed investigation of Fitts' law in different small target size conditions has yet to be done. In this study we conducted two experiments investigating the impact of small target sizes on pointing performance. We identified a critical point on the target size dimension where Fitts' law started to break down. We then proposed a small target size index of difficulty and an empirical Fitts' formula to extend the Fitts' law beyond the critical point to small target size conditions. Our results show that the new model works well as both a descriptive and a predictive model for small target size conditions.

Explicitly examining the values held by a research community provides a tool in which participants can define its culture, conduct informed research, and reflect on their design process. We conducted a content analysis of the values expressed in the full text of IDC papers between 2002 and 2010, as well as a survey of the first authors of these papers. We discuss the types of contributions IDC papers make, the behaviors and qualities they seek to support in children, the audience for which IDC designs, the role of the child in creating these designs, the theories and models that inform this research, and the criteria that inform IDC's technical design choices. Based on our findings, we discuss trends, core values, and implications for the community and highlight opportunities for future IDC contributions.

In this paper we introduce AR Scratch, the first augmented-reality (AR) authoring environment designed for children. By adding augmented-reality functionality to the Scratch programming platform, this environment allows pre-teens to create programs that mix real and virtual spaces. Children can display virtual objects on a real-world space seen through a camera, and they can control the virtual world through interactions between physical objects. This paper describes the system design process, which focused on appropriately presenting the AR technology to the typical Scratch population (children aged 8-12), as influenced by knowledge of child spatial cognition, programming expertise, and interaction metaphors. Evaluation of this environment is proposed, accompanied by results from an initial pilot study, as well as discussion of foreseeable impacts on the Scratch user community.