Generative AI (GenAI) has shifted AI capabilities from discriminative prediction to creative interaction, offering opportunities to augment productivity and innovation. However, realizing these benefits requires navigating risks where development outpaces governance. This article revisits the Six Human-Centered AI (HCAI) Grand Challenges to analyze their relevance in the generative era. Critical new requirements are identified: preserving human autonomy, ensuring operational safety against non-deterministic outputs, and navigating complex intellectual property landscapes. These findings are synthesized into an updated, actionable research agenda for each challenge, serving as a call to action to operationalize these principles. By shifting focus from risk mitigation to human empowerment, this agenda establishes human-centeredness as the organizing principle for a future where GenAI enhances human agency, dignity, and collective flourishing.

Motivated by the rapid technological advancements achieved in the last five years and the pervasiveness of Artificial Intelligence (AI), this paper investigates the evolving role of HCI and revisits the seven grand challenges outlined in 2019: human-technology symbiosis, human-environment interactions, ethics, privacy and security, well-being, health and eudaimonia, accessibility and universal access, learning and creativity, and social organization and democracy. Through literature analysis, the paper reevaluates the status of each challenge and highlights emerging requirements. Key findings reveal the widespread impact of AI across all domains and emphasize the need for improved AI transparency, alignment with human values, and the development of explainable, personalized, and privacy-preserving technologies to enhance user trust and control. The analysis also highlights the interconnected nature of these challenges and firmly asserts the role of technology in actively supporting human activities and collaborating harmoniously with humans to help them live meaningfully and fulfill aspirations.

Widespread adoption of artificial intelligence (AI) technologies is substantially affecting the human condition in ways that are not yet well understood. Negative unintended consequences abound including the perpetuation and exacerbation of societal inequalities and divisions via algorithmic decision making. We present six grand challenges for the scientific community to create AI technologies that are human-centered, that is, ethical, fair, and enhance the human condition. These grand challenges are the result of an international collaboration across academia, industry and government and represent the consensus views of a group of 26 experts in the field of human-centered artificial intelligence (HCAI). In essence, these challenges advocate for a human-centered approach to AI that (1) is centered in human well-being, (2) is designed responsibly, (3) respects privacy, (4) follows human-centered design principles, (5) is subject to appropriate governance and oversight, and (6) interacts with individuals while respecting human’s cognitive capacities. We hope that these challenges and their associated research directions serve as a call for action to conduct research and development in AI that serves as a force multiplier towards more fair, equitable and sustainable societies.

Published with license by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC. This article aims to investigate the Grand Challenges which arise in the current and emerging landscape of rapid technological evolution towards more intelligent interactive technologies, coupled with increased and widened societal needs, as well as individual and collective expectations that HCI, as a discipline, is called upon to address. A perspective oriented to humane and social values is adopted, formulating the challenges in terms of the impact of emerging intelligent interactive technologies on human life both at the individual and societal levels. Seven Grand Challenges are identified and presented in this article: Human-Technology Symbiosis; Human-Environment Interactions; Ethics, Privacy and Security; Well-being, Health and Eudaimonia; Accessibility and Universal Access; Learning and Creativity; and Social Organization and Democracy. Although not exhaustive, they summarize the views and research priorities of an international interdisciplinary group of experts, reflecting different scientific perspectives, methodological approaches and application domains. Each identified Grand Challenge is analyzed in terms of: concept and problem definition; main research issues involved and state of the art; and associated emerging requirements. BACKGROUND This article presents the results of the collective effort of a group of 32 experts involved in the community of the Human Computer Interaction International (HCII) Conference series. The group’s collaboration started in early 2018 with the collection of opinions from all group members, each asked to independently list and describe five HCI grand challenges. During a one-day meeting held on the 20th July 2018 in the context of the HCI International 2018 Conference in Las Vegas, USA, the identified topics were debated and challenges were formulated in terms of the impact of emerging intelligent interactive technologies on human life both at the individual and societal levels. Further analysis and consolidation led to a set of seven Grand Challenges presented herein. This activity was organized and supported by the HCII Conference series.

At the inception of the journal, over 25 years ago, I had the honor of editing the journal jointly with Michael J. Smith, my longtime close colleague and friend. Subsequently, I was most delighted ...

Overall customer satisfaction with websites has been linked with many positive customer behaviors and attitudes. In the highly competitive e-markets, website designers are consistently searching for new ways to gain an edge. Customer information satisfaction (CIS) studies have demonstrated the positive impact that information content has on customer’s overall satisfaction. Additionally, content preparation (CP) studies have focused on developing models and content factor structures to illustrate customer information needs. Reviewing the literature, there is a lack of research in these areas that focus on U.S. Internet users and online customers. In addition, guidelines and tools are needed to support designers. Thus, the objectives of this study are to (1) empirically evaluate a theoretical CP model; (2) derive a content factor structure; and (3) interpret results as design guidelines for online CIS. Over 300 U.S. internet users and online customers completed a survey. From an exploratory factor analysis, six factors—general product description, product quality, product appearance, member transactions, customer service, and company—explaining 71% of the total variance resulted. This study illustrates a baseline of information needs for internet users and online U.S. customers helpful for researchers and designers.

Communicational signals (e.g. lights and horns) are imperative for on-road interaction between drivers. The aim of the present study was to explore how these signals affect drivers' subjective appraisal and visual attention, and how drivers decode the signals from other vehicles within a variety of interactive contexts. Twenty-five male participants (20 valid samples, ranging from 21 to 29 years of age) were recruited to watch film clips of pre-designed interactive scenarios involving common vehicle signals in a full-view simulator (i.e. including road view and mirror views). Participants' attitudes towards the interacting vehicle's behaviours, emotional responses, fixation metrics, and decoded meanings were recorded and analysed. The majority of tested signals, with the exception of the horn used in the behind vehicles, significantly improved drivers' attitudes and pleasure. All signals significantly increased emotional arousal, as well as the total fixation time and mean fixation duration on the interacting vehicle. When the interacting vehicle was visible in mirrors, the signal usage significantly increased the fixation frequency towards it. Meanwhile, a significant decrease in total fixation time and mean fixation duration on the road was reported. The results also demonstrated that the decoded signal contained several meanings simultaneously depending on both the signal type and its interactive context. This study quantified the communication process via vehicular signals under typical situations involving other vehicles, and also suggested new ideas on how to establish more advanced communication between drivers.

After adopting mobile phones, most older adults use them only for calling and SMS. The purpose of this study is to extend their usage of mobile phones to new functions. To understand older adults’ requirements of mobile phones, a questionnaire was constructed and 351 Chinese older adults were recruited to complete the questionnaires. Data collected through the questionnaires were analysed using explorative factor analysis. The results revealed that older adults’ requirements were composed of 10 factors: Find a Specific Function, Awareness and Attractiveness, Readability, Personal Concern, Soft Keys and Multi-tap, Hardware Capacity, Touch Screen, Concern of Learning, Connectivity, and Social Influence. Then, from the above 10 factors, the 6 most important factors were revealed using multiple linear regression analysis. The results imply that accepting new functions is different from accepting a product. Readability and Find a Specific Function, which are critical for older adults’ acceptance of feature phones, are not determinants of their acceptance of new functions in smart phones.

This study focuses on older adults’ finger-based text entry on smartphones and tablets. Thirty-two older adults entered Chinese characters with two input methods (typing and handwriting) on touch screens with four display sizes (3.5 in., 5 in., 7 in., 9.7 in.). Their performance, acceptance, preference, and errors were recorded and thus four findings were found. First, on small displays (3.5 in. and 5 in.), handwriting contributed to shorter task completion time, higher perceived ease of use, and higher usage intention than typing, but no difference was observed on large displays (7 in. and 9.7 in.). Second, there is a gap of task completion time and perceived ease of use between 5 in. and 7 in. for typing, whereas there is no gap for handwriting. Third, participants’ preference of 9.7 in. was almost the same as that of 7 in., and their preference of 7 in. was 1.5 times as strong as that of 5 in. Fourth, participants’ finger-based text entry was prone to 13 types of errors. Many of these errors were caused by the mismatch between older adults’ mental models and designers’ mental models.

Multiple-view visualisations offer several advantages, such as providing different perspectives on the data. However, there are also associated cognitive costs, including the load on working memory and the effort required for comparison. Furthermore, little perception-based research has been conducted, with few answers to questions such as what tasks multiple views are best used for. Since task performance can be limited by visual attention and working memory, this article investigates how different tasks and their respective loads on attention and working memory affect the usability of two different multiple-view visualisations, namely sequential and simultaneous views. In Study 1, the effects when attention was loaded were studied, where users performed a real-time monitoring task. The results suggest that the divided attention problem was an issue with both view types, but design issues apparent with the simultaneous view were not issues with the sequential view. In Study 2, the effects when working memory was loaded were studied, where users made comparisons of different object sets. The results support the previous work on visual- and memory-based comparisons, i.e. the simultaneous view was more useful than the sequential view. The outcomes from both studies illustrate the importance of understanding how different tasks and their impact on attention and working memory can influence the usability of multiple-view visualisations.

Article title: The Evaluation of User Experience of the Virtual World in Relation to Extrinsic and Intrinsic Motivation Author: Dong-Hee Shin Journal: International Journal of Human-Computer Intera...

The cell phone is not a simple communication tool. People use embedded mobile phone features such as games, cameras and wireless internet for various purposes of entertainment and shopping. In some cases usability problems impact negatively on product success, whereas in other cases they do not. The objective of our study was to develop a questionnaire for cell phones and investigate the relation between usability and product success. We reviewed existing usability studies and factors for product success to develop the questionnaire for cell phones. Subjects then evaluated the usability and success factors of cell phones. Finally, re-purchase intention and success scores including usability scores were analysed to determine whether they are positively related and which usability factors impact cell phone product success. Design, customer needs and innovativeness of cell phones were especially important among success factors, whereas more attention should be paid to satisfaction, feedback and efficiency among the usability dimensions.

The ever-changing market demand structure galvanises a shift from product-based to value-based competition. Creativity is regarded as one important source adding supplemental value to the consumer's overall product experience. It also plays a pivotal role in achieving the synergy between both instrumental and hedonic qualities via a comprehensive ergonomic design process, which is superior to what is achieved via the traditional ergonomic design process only considering functionality and usability. This article focuses on website creativity, as compared to previous studies that have mainly dealt with issues regarding traditional hardware product creativity. The authors review relevant literature on creativity, product creativity, website development, consumer behaviour, and measurement tools for creativity, and appraise the salient differences between traditional hardware products and websites. The overall conclusion drawn from the review and appraisal is that web technology has potentially more creativity components and opportunities than do traditional hardware products. By addressing both pragmatic and hedonic design requirements, a creative website should become more attractive, appealing, and thus promote positive user experience and be more commercially competitive.

Advertising delivered via mobile phones constitutes a promising approach to marketing because it enables easy targeting, content personalization, and interactive communication. We conducted a laboratory experiment with 48 participants using a 24-item structured questionnaire about important emotional components involved in using mobile phones for advertising. The data revealed 3 factors that explained 63% of the total variance. Factor 1 included activation, restfulness, desire, affection, gratitude, and urgency. Factor 2 included anger, fear, sadness, and irritation. Factor 3 included skepticism and boredom. Stepwise multiple regression analysis indicated that boredom accounted for 45% of the variance in attitudes toward the advertisements. These findings imply that low-intensity negative feelings are important contributors to the success of advertisements presented on mobile phones and that engagingness is the most important emotional component in effective cell phone advertising.

This article presents a comprehensive literature review to investigate whether and why older adults accept handheld computers and how to design elderly-friendly handheld computers. Findings about acceptance, input devices, menu and functions, and output devices are summarized. First, older adults were under social pressure to use mobile phones, but they had low acceptance of advanced functions. Also, they had a different way to judge acceptance factors from younger adults. Second, older adults preferred the physical keyboard to the on-screen keyboard for text entry, whereas they preferred tapping the touch pad to the joystick and buttons for pointing tasks. Third, older adults had shallower mental representation of the mobile phone menus than younger adults. Navigation aids providing contextual information and large cognitive preview per screen could help them. Finally, recommended size and spacing for text and icons are presented.

Interactive visualizations have the potential to greatly enhance our ability to analyze data. Although the user is central to the use of such environments, perceptual and cognitive processes are not well understood within the context of interactive visualization. Although cognitive psychology has provided a greater understanding of visual perception and cognition, a theoretical framework that links this knowledge with the interactive visualization process is needed. This article aims to fill this gap by introducing a visual information processing model that facilitates the understanding of how users interact with interactive visualization environments.

Menu systems have been key components in modern graphical user interfaces, and there has been a lot of research about menu design. Menu design features play a significant role from the perspective of customer satisfaction. Therefore, researchers have investigated various features in menu design. 3D menus have been investigated because these can display more items and provide a natural and intuitive interface. Small screens of the type used on mobile phones are limited in the amount of available space, and thus it might be more beneficial to use 3D menus in cell phones. A review of previous menu design studies for human–computer interaction suggests that menu design guidelines for computers and mobile phones need to be reappraised, especially toward the use of 3D interfaces in cell phones. The main objective of this article is to propose an overall framework for 3D menu interfaces in cell phones. The second objective is to propose guidelines for 2D and 3D menu design in computers and cell phones based on a literature review. Three main factors that might influence the performance of menu retrieval task in cell phones are included in the proposed model: the presentation type, the number of items, and menu type.

In the global economy, design of digital media often involves teams of individuals from a variety of cultures who must function together. Similarly, products must be designed and marketed taking specific cultural characteristics into account. Much is known about decision processes, culture and cognition, design of products and interfaces for human interaction with machines, and organizational processes, but this knowledge is dispersed across several disciplines and research areas. This article reviews current work in these areas and proposes a research agenda for fostering increased understanding of the ways in which cultural differences influence decision making and action in design and use of digital media.

Interactivity is considered a prominent characteristic of mobile advertising; however, a properly developed tool to measure the concept has not been developed. This study focusses on the development and validation of an instrument for measuring the interactivity perceived by individuals who interact with mobile advertisements on handheld devices. The confirmatory factor analysis results show that perceived interactivity in mobile advertising is comprised of six correlated but distinct constructs: user control, synchronicity, two-way communication, connectedness, playfulness and interpersonal communication. The result from a series of tests and examinations indicated that the multidimensional scale exhibits content validity and discriminant validity. The internal consistency of the scale reaches an acceptable level. The relationship with personal variables was also analysed. Gender, education, monthly income, years using cell phones, monthly cell phone charges, monthly cost for data services on cell phones and previous experiences with mobile advertisements have no influences on respondent interactivity perception with mobile advertisements. But user age is negatively correlated with perceived interactivity and years using the Internet are positively correlated with perceived interactivity. Young people with more Internet experience are more likely to perceive interactivity of mobile advertisements.

The objective of this study was to investigate people's perception of information security and to unveil the factors that influence people's perception of different threats to information security. In the survey study, 602 respondents were asked to evaluate one of 21 common threats to information security with regard to its rank related to each of the 20 threat-related features. An exploratory factor analysis was then conducted, and a six-factor structure was derived, which includes factors of Knowledge, Impact, Severity, Controllability, Possibility and Awareness. Using this factor structure, the characteristics of the five most dangerous threats (hackers, worms, viruses, Trojan horses and backdoor programs) and the five least dangerous threats (spam, piratical software, operation accidents, users' online behaviour being recorded and deviation in quality of service) were discussed and compared. The relationships between the factors and the perceived overall danger of threats were found and then tested by multiple regression analyses. Significant effects were also found in people's perception of information security related to computer experience and types of loss.

Handsets are being transformed from the traditional cellular phone to an integrated content delivery platform for communications. Their increasing capabilities and value-added features provide more utilities, and at the same time, make the design more complicated and the devices more difficult to use. The objective of this study was to explore and identify the critical factors that predicate the handset's perceived usability. An online survey was conducted by using a seven-point Likert-scale structured questionnaire tailored to measure the user's perception of the usability level of their current handset. A total of nine usability dimensions were derived from the results of exploratory factor analysis. The total variance explained by these nine factors was 65.20% of the overall variance of the data. Relationships between the nine usability factors and handset design features were described by regression models.

This study investigates the effects of game difficulty on player’s immersion. Key factors in this study are difficulty of direction changes, including three directions (up and down, down and up, and continuously increasing) and difficulty of rate changes, with three rates (slow, medium, and fast). An experiment was conducted with 48 participants, each playing the same experimental games with different difficulty of direction or rate changes. The results indicate that the players have better immersion when the difficulty changes up and down than when it changes down and up or when the difficulty is continuously increased. And the participants have better immersion when the difficulty changes at a medium rate than when it changes slowly or fast.

To better fulfil customer satisfaction, a study of what content e-business web sites should contain is conducted. Based on background literature, a content preparation survey of 70 items was developed and completed by 428 white collar employees of an electronic company in mainland China. The survey aimed at examining the significant content factors of e-business web sites. The results of the study indicated a 0.75% internal consistency of the survey. Factor analysis of the data indicated 15 main content factors for e-business web sites, which accounted for 60.1% of total variance. The factors, in order of importance, are security content, quality content, service content, appearance description, contact information, aid function, customised function, search function, product specification, purchasing aid, price content, detailed description, comment content, matching product, review content. This study concludes with guidelines for the design of content preparation of e-business web sites.

Smart homes are expected to promote productivity and enhance living experience, especially for old adults. To achieve this, the level of user interface intelligence should be designed to meet the needs of users and tasks. The aim of this study was to investigate the impact of user interface intelligence level on user performances for different tasks and different users. Two objectives were pursued. The first was to investigate how the intelligence of the user interface affects user performance when different cognitive tasks are performed. The second was to determine the differences between young and senior users when interacting with smart homes. A two-dimension conceptual model is proposed to describe the impact of these two factors, i.e., user interface intelligence and cognitive tasks, on smart home user performance. A 3-by-3 experiment was designed and three prototypes were developed. Thirty-six young and 36 senior people were recruited as participants. The results showed that different levels of intelligence of user interfaces facilitated user performance with different cognitive tasks. Users completed skill-based tasks using the least time and committing the least errors using the low-intelligence-level interface; when completing rule-based tasks, users exhibited best performance in terms of less error with the high intelligence interface. However, for senior people, because of the decline in cognitive abilities, their performance was not as clearly differentiated as that of younger people when using different smart home interfaces, especially for highly cognitively demanding tasks. Moreover, when senior people completed skill-based tasks, the task load they perceived increased together with the intelligence level of the smart home interface.

There are indications that interactivity could benefit the effectiveness of mobile advertisements. But there are few guidelines on how to design interactive mobile advertisements. This study investigated the influences of various design features of mobile advertisements on perceived interactivity and the relationship between perceived interactivity and attitude toward mobile advertisements. An experiment consisting of 2 sessions was conducted to test 5 proposed hypotheses with 40 participants. Results showed that the number of user control options and the customizability of advertisements have significant influences on users' perception of interactivity. The more options a message advertisement provides, the more interactive the participants perceive the advertisement; a customizable game advertisement is perceived as more interactive than an uncustomizable game advertisement. But no significant effects of presenting instructional information of mobile Web advertisements and including humorous elements were found. Finally, perceived interactivity was found a strong predictor of attitude toward mobile advertisement.

The overall discovery rates, which are the ratios of sum of unique usability problems detected by all experiment participants against the number of usability problems existed in the evaluated systems, were investigated to find significant factors of usability evaluation through a meta-analytic approach with the n-corrected effect sizes newly defined in this study. Since many studies of usability evaluation have been conducted under specific contexts showing some mixed findings, usability practitioners need holistic and more generalized conclusions. Due to the limited applicability of the traditional meta-analysis to usability evaluation studies, a new meta-analytic approach was established and applied to 38 experiments that reported overall discovery rates of usability problems as a criterion measure. Through the meta-analytic approach with the n-corrected effect sizes, we successfully combined 38 experiments and found evaluator's expertise, report type, and interaction between usability evaluation method and time constraint as significant factors. We suggest that in order to increase overall discovery rates of usability problems, (a) free-style written reports are better than structured written reports; (b) when heuristic evaluation or cognitive walkthrough is used, the usability evaluation experiments should be conducted without time constraint, but when think-aloud is used, time constraint is not an important experimental condition; (c) usability practitioners do not need to be concerned about unit of evaluation, fidelity of evaluated systems, and task type; and (d) HCI experts are better than novice users or evaluators. Our conclusions can guide usability practitioners when determining evaluation contexts, and the meta-analytic approach of this study provides an alternative way to combine the empirical results of usability evaluation besides the traditional meta-analysis.

The objective of this study was to examine underlying mechanisms concerning preference differences for content on e-commerce Web sites of online consumers with different cultural backgrounds. Two experiments were conducted to explore Chinese and U.S. online consumers' information preferences with three particular product categories: MP3 players, digital cameras, and laptop computers. For Experiment 1, two prototype e-commerce Web sites were developed that contained the same content but presented in different ways. Twenty-four Chinese and 24 U.S. university students were asked to purchase an MP3 player, a digital camera, and a laptop computer from one of the two sites, and their information preferences were assessed and compared in terms of their performance on the sites. For Experiment 2, two versions of product description were developed for each product used in the experiment with each version focusing on a different information item. The preferences of 24 Chinese and 24 U.S. university students for certain information items were assessed and compared with their preferences for the corresponding product description, indicated on a 7-point Likert scale. The differences between the two cultural groups' information preferences revealed by the experiments are discussed, and their implications for improving the content usability of e-commerce Web sites in China and the United States are offered.

In order to measure player immersion in the computer game narrative, this study explores and analyzes factors of the computer game narrative that influence players who are immersed in the game story world. Originally a questionnaire consisting of six dimensions—Curiosity, Concentration, Challenge, Control, Comprehension, and Empathy—was proposed. To evaluate the questionnaire, two surveys were conducted on the Internet, and data were collected from 734 respondents. After exploratory factor analysis and confirmatory factor analysis, the dimensions were modified to Curiosity, Concentration, Challenge and Skills, Control, Comprehension, Empathy, and Familiarity.

Existing models of usability evaluation estimate sample size requirements based on goal discovery rate and detectability of potential problems without consideration of the importance of the problem and an index of usability, which allows the comparison of the effectiveness of usability of information technology products and services across different domains. This article presents a methodology which accounts for the aforementioned limitations in usability evaluation. A case study is presented, which illustrates the utility of the proposed methodology and indicates that the current methods underestimate the number of participants in usability evaluation studies.

Content preparation is an important stage in e-commerce website development. It is critical to present appropriate information content to facilitate consumers' decision-making. In the international e-commerce setting, to better serve users from different countries, their different information preferences must be accommodated by taking cultural differences between countries into consideration in content preparation. After examining relevant literature, this paper proposes a conceptual model on content preparation for cross-cultural e-commerce. The model explores cultural effects on information processing of consumers by taking into account both normative effects and psychological effects. Tentative conclusions about cultural differences that need to be accommodated in content preparation are also offered.

This research utilized the critical incident technique (CIT) to identify factors influencing customer satisfaction and retention of customers participating in e-commerce transactions. Customers were asked in telephone interviews to discuss both particularly satisfying and dissatisfying (or critical) incidents they had experienced when using web sites to conduct transactions. Each customer also provided demographic information, rated their satisfaction with the experience and ecommerce provider, and was asked how often they purchased products from the provider prior to and after the incident. Analysis revealed 662 citations by customers of items contributing to either positive or negative experiences. Exploratory text-mining analysis revealed that the majority of positive items pertained to the transaction (38%), product (25%), or website (23%), and to customer support (35%) or the transaction for negative items (30%). Approximately 86% of customers citing positive items said they were very likely to use the e-commerce site again, compared to 22% of customers citing negative items. Customer support and user experience both seemed to play an important mediating role on the criticality of negative incidents. Over 70% of first time users and customers who said customer support ignored or refused their requests for assistance said they were unlikely to return to the site, compared to 20% when customer support was said to be responsive. Correlation analysis confirmed that negative incidents tended to be more critical than positive ones, and more so for first time customers.

The attempts of using the wireless network as a new advertising media are rapidly increasing. This paper proposes a framework for understanding the characteristics of advertising through mobile phones. The paper discusses the traits of online advertisements and comparison to other advertising media. It also presents the overview of different conceptual models for advertising and suggests a conceptual model for mobile phone advertising. A review is presented on the factors affecting the effect of mobile advertising and three groups of factors are suggested; advertisement; audience; and environment. A total number of 53 case studies is collected and categorised based on product category, business object, target audience and advertisement type. Four observations are made from the case studies in the viewpoint of the three factor framework.

Welcome to Issue 24(1)—the first issue of 2008. This year marks a milestone for the International Journal of Human–Computer Interaction (IJHCI). Over the last year we have been working with the jou...

The purpose of this study is to investigate the effectiveness of decision support through visualization to increase tactile sensations (physical sensations) of clothing products. Gap and Anthropologie e-commerce Web sites were selected, and 160 participants (80 for Gap and 80 for Anthropologie) took part in this study. For each brand, the 80 participants were divided into two groups. One group assessed the material based on the information presented on the current clothing Web site. The other group had additional visual information on the nature of the clothing material. Both groups completed a -6 item questionnaire on their perception of the clothing material. After this, both groups touched the actual clothing material and rated its characteristics. There was no statistical difference in the material perception for the experimental group between using the Web site with decision support and actually touching the material, whereas for the control group there was a significant difference between them.

I, Gavriel Salvendy, had the opportunity to review this book and was most impressed with its direction of thinking about product design, and I suggested to some of my PhD students that they read it...

The cell phone is an information appliance that has been widely used. It provides instant access to information and makes people more ‘connected’. The objective of our study is to investigate the relationship among the design features of the cell phone and identify the most important design features and design factors. In our survey study, we asked 1,006 college students using a 7-point Likert scale structured questionnaire to evaluate their preference of the design features and overall satisfaction of their current cell phone. Nine design factors were derived. Ten cell phone design features and five design factors that significantly impact a user's satisfaction were identified. The most important design features are: the physical appearance, size and menu organisation, which together account for 42% of the total variance of a user's overall satisfaction.

The heuristic evaluation method, a commonly used usability evaluation method, suffers from variability in evaluation results (Nielsen, 1993 Nielsen, J. 1993. Usability engineering Boston: Academic.. [Crossref] , [Google Scholar]). Taguchi's quality-control method was applied to the heuristic evaluation process, and the robust condition of conducting heuristic evaluation that was insensitive to differences in an evaluator's cognitive styles was derived. Three control factors—task type, heuristic set, and evaluation mode—were used in the Taguchi analysis. The noise factor studied was the evaluator's cognitive style. The result of Taguchi analysis showed that if evaluators conducted the evaluations in pairs with the help of e-commerce-specific heuristics, the variability in the result caused by the noise factor was the minimum. The optimized evaluation process produced a 17.6% improvement in evaluation effectiveness over the traditional heuristic evaluation method (Nielsen, 1994 Karat, C. M. 1994. “Acomparison of user interface evaluation methods.”. In Usability inspection method Edited by: Nielsen, J. and Mack, R. L. 202–234. New York: Wiley.. [Google Scholar]) and reduced the variance among the participant's evaluation effectiveness at the same time.

International e-commerce has been developed as an efficient means of global transaction, and it may be further improved, especially in B2C, if adapted to the conditions of local markets, such as economy, infrastructure and culture. To obtain the insight in the internationalisation of e-commerce, we investigated online shopping preferences in three nations – the US (well developed in e-commerce), Korea (fast growing with good infrastructure) and Turkey (developing with good potentials). A survey of 205 Korean university students was conducted, and its results were compared with the results of Turkish and US surveys in Lightner et al. (). We found significant cross-national differences in online shopping preferences, especially in information accuracy, security and product-price comparison, and discussed those differences in terms of economic, infrastructural and cultural factors. Several practical guidelines were provided for website design in the Korean online market.

Association rules mining is a popular data mining modeling tool. It discovers interesting associations or correlation relationships among a large set of data items, showing attribute values that occur frequently together in a given dataset. Despite their great potential benefit, current association rules modeling tools are far from optimal. This article studies how visualization techniques can be applied to facilitate the association rules modeling process, particularly what visualization elements should be incorporated and how they can be displayed. Original designs for visualization of rules, integration of data and rule visualizations, and visualization of rule derivation process for supporting interactive visual association rules modeling are proposed in this research. Experimental results indicated that, compared to an automatic association rules modeling process, the proposed interactive visual association rules modeling can significantly improve the effectiveness of modeling, enhance understanding of the applied algorithm, and bring users greater satisfaction with the task. The proposed integration of data and rule visualizations can significantly facilitate understanding rules compared to their nonintegrated counterpart.

This study investigates the composition of customer relationship management (CRM) in e-business by examining the possible elements that determine different aspects of the relationship between customers and e-businesses. A web-based CRM survey of 38 items, constructed from SERVQUAL (service quality instrument), SITEQUAL (website service quality instrument) and literature findings, was completed by 200 customer contact professionals. Results of a factor analysis indicated three main customer relationship attributes of e-business, which are: general CRM (accounting for 51% of the total variance); personalization (accounting for 9% of the total variance); and privacy (accounting for 7% of the total variance). Results of a stepwise regression indicated that these customer relationship attributes significantly predict customer attitude (83% of the explained variance). Within the general CRM dimension, website content organization correlated highly with customer attitude (65% of the explained variance). The results of the study indicate that customers perceive three main dimensions of relationship attributes of e-business (general CRM, personalization and privacy) and that all three significantly contribute to customer attitude. These findings support the importance of including relational-type e-business attributes when investigating interactions between customers and e-business. The study concludes with related implications and design guidelines to enhancing customer perception of e-business.

Perceived security is defined as the level of security that users feel while they are shopping on e-commerce sites. The aims of this study were to determine items that positively influence this feeling of security by users during shopping, and to develop guidelines for perceived security in e-commerce. An experiment allowed users with different security assurances to shop on simulated e-commerce sites. The participants were divided into three groups, shopping for cheap, mid-range, and expensive products, respectively. Following the shopping environment, the virtual shopping security questionnaire (VSSQ), consisting of fourteen perceived security items, was presented to the users. The VSSQ was presented to the participants to validate these perceived security items. The VSSQ had a Cronbach's alpha internal reliability value of 0.70. With the exception of two items, there were no significant differences in item ratings between the groups of different shopping item values. A factor analysis procedure determined two main factors concerning perceived security in e-commerce. The perceived operational factor includes: the site's blocking of unauthorized access; emphasis on login name and password authentication; funding and budget spent on security; monitoring of user compliance with security procedures; integration of state-of-the-art systems; distribution of security items within the site; website's encryption strategy; and consolidation with network security vendors. The perceived policy-related factor includes: the website's emphasis on network security; top management commitment; effort to make users aware of security procedures; the website's keeping up-to-date with product standards; the website's emphasis on security in file transfers; and issues concerning the web browser.

This paper reviews and reappraises the current research on the cognitive task analysis methodology for job or task design and analysis. Specifically, it classifies the current cognitive task analysis methods for job or task design and analysis, sorts out commonalities and differences among all these cognitive task analysis methodology for job and task design and analysis by conducting pros and cons comparisons, and provides guidelines in selecting cognitive task analysis methods for job and task design and analysis. Moreover, based on the current literature review, a validated human-centered information-processing model for cognitive task performance was developed based on human information processing theory. This new model focuses on identifying all cognitive aspects of human performance in technical work, with the goal of assisting job (re)design to increase human job performance.

This study addresses graphical Web directory, a new way to present hierarchical structure of Web directory. An analysis of the characteristics and problems of current Web directories is presented. The feature graphical Web directory for supporting information processing and decision making in Web directory browsing in Web search is proposed to improve users' performance and satisfaction. An experiment was conducted to test the effectiveness of the proposed feature. The results of the experiment indicated that (a) the enhancement of this feature improved users' initial and overall search performance by 32.6 and 43.4%, respectively, (b) the enhancement of this feature also improved users' satisfaction by 27.7%.

The objective of this study was to investigate the effects of linguistic inconsistency on performance and satisfaction on the Web. Three experiments were conducted, and the Interface Consistency Testing Questionnaire (Ozok and Salvendy 2001) was used in all three experiments to measure consistency levels. The three experiments using a total of 100 subjects evaluated the effects of direct manipulation, text-based, and hybrid interfaces with linguistic consistency and inconsistency on performance and satisfaction of the Web user. The experimental results indicated that both direct manipulation and text-based interfaces with linguistic consistency reduced performance time and error rates in comparison to inconsistent linguistics interfaces. Specifically in Reading Comprehension Tasks, subjects committed significantly fewer comprehension errors in consistent language interfaces than in inconsistent language interfaces.

This paper examines aspects affecting user behaviours in Web browsing with a discussion of existing models for both the computer and human aspects of Web browsing. Problems in Web information retrieval are analysed and studies related to the reuse of user experience in Web browsing are reviewed. An object-oriented model for user behaviours in Web browsing is proposed in which both the information from the Web and the information retained by users are modelled as objects. Thus, user actions on the Web are described as a graph of objects or transformations from one object to another. A framework for reuse of user experience is provided. The possible methods of reusing Web browsing experience are described for the scenario of reusing by oneself (history mechanism, prediction) or reusing by others (collaborative filtering, instructions).

For different levels of user performance, different types of information are processed and users will make different types of errors. Based on the error's immediate cause and the information being processed, usability problems can be classified into three categories. They are usability problems associated with skill-based, rule-based and knowledge-based levels of performance. In this paper, a user interface for a Web-based software program was evaluated with two usability evaluation methods, user testing and heuristic evaluation. The experiment discovered that the heuristic evaluation with human factor experts is more effective than user testing in identifying usability problems associated with skill-based and rule-based levels of performance. User testing is more effective than heuristic evaluation in finding usability problems associated with the knowledge-based level of performance. The practical application of this research is also discussed in the paper.

Based on previous research and properties of organizational memory, a conceptual model for navigation and retrieval functions in an Intranet portal organizational memory information system was proposed, and two human-centred features (memory structure map and history-based tool) were developed to support user's navigation and retrieval in a well-known organizational memory. To test two hypotheses concerning the validity of the conceptual model and two human-centred features, an experiment was conducted with 30 subjects. Testing of the two hypotheses indicated the following: (1) the memory structure map's users showed 29% better performance in navigation, and (2) the history-based tool's users outperformed by 34% in identifying information. The results of the study suggest that a conceptual model and two human-centred features could be used in an user-adaptive interface design to improve user's performance in an intranet portal organizational memory information system.

With internationalization of commerce and business and with increased use of e-business and e-commerce, it is important to ensure that these systems can be effectively utilized across cultural boundaries. To increase effectiveness, appropriate changes and modifications in the systems may be required. With this in mind, a survey of 300 Turkish university students was undertaken to assess their on-line shopping and behaviour preferences, and these were compared with the results derived from 64 US university students. The results provide guidelines for specific design of features for the Turkish population that may not be necessary for the US population.

This article presents the outcomes of a technical symposium on the topic of the use of intranets as a tool for organizational learning, which was conducted at the 9th International Conference on Human-Computer Interaction, held in New Orleans, Louisiana, August 5 through 10, 2001. The objective of the symposium was to derive, based on the collective intelligence of experts, an agenda for research and development (R&D) concerning the use of intranet for organizational learning for the short, medium, and long term. Expert knowledge of this research area was acquired and assimilated through the symposium, which was composed of technical paper presentations and a full-day "white paper" session, as well as pre- and post-symposium survey dissemination and analysis. The current state of knowledge and resulting agenda for R&D are reported, and 4 critical areas are emphasized: organizational rules, norms and structures; changes in the nature of work; knowledge manipulation; and technology issues.

The vast amount of information available through the Web has made it difficult to retrieve information relevant to a specific task. To help ensure that users' interactions with a system are successful, preparation of content and its presentation to users must take into account (a) what information needs to be extracted, (b) the way in which this information should be stored and organized, (c) the methods for retrieving the information, and (d) how the information should be displayed. The goal of this article is to discuss the generic problems facing content preparation and evaluate the current methods available to help remedy them, as well as identify areas in which more research is needed. The material presented in this article was a result of the collective efforts of the participants of a special "white paper" session that was part of the 9th International Conference on Human-Computer Interaction (HCI International 2001).

This article reviews the studies on human aspects of information technology undertaken by Salvendy and his colleagues in the past two decades. By looking into the evolution of these studies, the article discusses that technology has been driving this discipline. The future of this field is envisioned.

Previous studies have indicated that when interfaces are designed consistently with regards to structure and physical attributes, higher performance and lower error rates are achieved than when interfaces are designed inconsistently. The objective of the current study was to develop a methodology to measure all aspects of computer interface consistency and assess the impact of linguistic inconsistency of interface design on user performance. Based on the background literature, seven factors were identified as affecting overall consistency. Based on this identification, a structured questionnaire of 125 items was developed and a factor analysis was conducted which reduced the number of items in the questionnaire to 94 and identified the following nine factors which contribute to consistency: text structure, general text features, information representation, lexical categories, meaning, user knowledge, text content, communicational attributes and physical attributes. A series of four experiments were conducted with 140 subjects using four different tasks and eight different interface types. The internal reliability of the questionnaire was 0.81, and the inter-rater reliability was 0.75. The instrument effectively identified all of the inconsistencies in interface designs. The instrument can be utilized both as an evaluation and as a design tool for Web-based interfaces.

This study investigates the effects of users' visualization ability and Web site structure display design on users' performance and memory organization in Web site information search tasks using a browsing strategy. A human-centered design-structure preview-was proposed in this study. Structure preview is a Web site navigation menu in which each menu item serves as a link to one Web page, similar to a menu design in Microsoft Windows 95 and Windows 98. An experiment was conducted in which 40 individuals participated. The experimental design was a 2-factor factorial design. Independent variables were visualization ability (low and high) and Web site design (conventional and structure preview). Twenty participants were identified as users with low visualization ability and 20 participants were identified as users with high visualization ability. Dependent variables were the number of identified items, the number of steps per item, and memory organization. Results indicated that both low- and high-visualization users' performance improved significantly (76.3% more identified items and 83.4% fewer steps per item for low-visualization users; 36.5% more identified items and 78.4% fewer steps per item for high-visualization users) when using the structure preview design than when using the conventional design. When using the conventional design, high-visualization users had significantly better performance (36.9% more identified items and 23.6% fewer steps per item) than low-visualization users. Also, the memory organization of all users (including both low- and high-visualization users) improved significantly (42.9%) when using the structure preview design compared with the conventional design.

In this paper a conceptual framework and an operational methodology is presented for describing the most appropriate knowledge elicitation method (protocol, interview, induction and repertory grid) for three classes of tasks (diagnosis, debugging and interpretation) and for experts with strengths in various factors of cognitive abilities. Using the dependent variables of: (1) total knowledge captured; (2) time to acquire knowledge; (3) knowledge quality; (4) efficiency of the knowledge elicitation method; and (5) importance of resulting data, experimental results indicate the various strengths of the four knowledge elicitation methods. The knowledge acquired is also significantly affected by the combined factors of expert's strengths in different cognitive factors and the method of knowledge elicitation used. Based on these findings, a Matching Index for combining tasks, knowledge elicitation methods and cognitive abilities of the expert is described. The outcome of this research provides theoretical and practical implications for Human Computer Interaction (HCI) and training of knowledge engineers.

This research investigated the language differences between English and Chinese and the implication on the design of menu presentations for computer interfaces. Eighty Chinese subjects and twenty American subjects participated in this experiment. The results of this research indicated that the menu layout should be congruent with the language being used. Horizontal English menus result in better performance than vertical English menus. However, vertical Chinese menus result in better performance than horizontal Chinese menus. It is important to design menus based on the language being used rather than the linguistic traditions of the population using the interface. The effects of menu layout also depend on whether the search task items were presented in English or Chinese.

This study investigates the effects of cultural differences on computer performance of Chinese and American users and the design of appropriate interfaces for Chinese users. Past research documents the cognitive and cultural differences between the Chinese and the American populations. Those include cognitive style differences (Chinese as concrete and American as abstract) and thinking process differences (Chinese as thematic and American as functional). An experiment was conducted to investigate these differences, in which 40 Chinese participants residing in Mainland China and 40 American participants participated. The independent variables were knowledge representation (abstract and concrete) and interface structure (functional and thematic) of an information system. Results indicate that, for the Chinese participants, advantages were associated with concrete representation and with thematic structure in terms of initial performance time, but the advantages vanished for later performance due to learning. There were also advantages associated with thematic structure in terms of error rate throughout experimental trials.

A template for search queries was developed based on user-centered design principles and was proposed to assist users in formulating Web search queries. The user-centered design was characterized by predefined search queries organized as a hierarchy. Two experimental search engines and browsers were developed: One was based on currently available search engines and the other was based on the user-centered template design. An experiment was conducted to test the effectiveness of the template design. The dependent variables were (a) the number of relevant Web sites identified during a 1-hr test period, (b) the time to find the first relevant Web site, and (c) satisfaction. The independent variable was type of search engine. The experimental results indicated that the user-centered template design improved users' search performance by 70% and satisfaction of use by 23% as compared to the current search engine.

"Handbook of Human-Computer Interaction (Book Review)." International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction, 11(1), pp. 71–73

This article reports on the results of the second meeting and workshop of the International Scientific Forum, "Towards an Information Society for All," that took place in Crete, Greece, June 15-16, 1998. In particular, it elaborates on the international research and development agenda (Stephanidis et al., 1998), which resulted from the first meeting and workshop of the Forum in San Francisco, California, on August 29, 1997, in the context of the HCI International '97 Conference. This article elaborates on the proposed research and development agenda by identifying human-computer interaction challenges and clusters of concrete recommendations for international collaborative research and technological development (RTD) activities. Four clusters of recommendations are proposed. The first three facilitate reaching technological targets, and the fourth comprises accompanying measures. The three technological clusters concern the corresponding transitions from (a) productivity tools to environments of use, (b) individual users to communities of users, and (c) computer-assisted business tasks to computer-mediated human activities. The fourth cluster covers support (horizontal) actions needed to establish a favorable environment for the creation of an information society acceptable to all citizens. Each cluster is elaborated by means of specific recommendations, plausible RTD objectives, and likely or expected outcomes.

This report represents a committee summary of the current state of knowledge regarding aftereffects and sense of presence in virtual environments (VEs). The work presented in this article, and the proposed research agenda, are the result of a special session that was set up in the framework of the Seventh International Conference on Human Computer Interaction. Recommendations were made by the committee regarding research needs in aftereffects and sense of presence, and, where possible, priorities were suggested. The research needs were structured in terms of the short, medium, and long term and, if followed, should lead toward the effective use of VE technology. The 2 most critical research issues identified were (a) standardization and use of measurement approaches for aftereffects and (b) identification and prioritization of sensorimotor discordances that drive aftereffects. Identification of aftereffects countermeasures (i.e., techniques to assist users in readily transitioning between the real and virtual worlds), reduction of system response latencies, and improvements in tracking technology were also thought to be of critical importance.

This article introduces the visionary goal of an information society for all in which the principles of universal access and quality in use prevail and characterize computer-mediated human activities. The article is based on the outcome of the 1st meeting of the International Scientific Forum "Toward an Information Society for All," which took place during the Seventh International Conference on Human Computer Interaction (HCI International '97), The objective of this meeting was to define a short-, medium-, and long-term international research and development agenda in the context of the emerging information society, based on the principle of designing for all users. The proposed agenda addressed technological and user-oriented issues, application domains, and support measures, which are necessary for the establishment of a favorable environment: for the creation of an infatuation society acceptable to all citizens.

The objective of this study was to investigate the impacts of cultural differences in cognitive abilities between the American and Chinese users on their performance with icon displays. The goal was to provide insight for software developers whose products might have potential Chinese users. The key factor in this study was the presentation mode of icon displays, which could be alphanumeric elements only, pictorial elements only, or a combined mode (both elements). An experiment was conducted with 30 American and 30 Chinese subjects. The subjects performed recognition tasks using different presentation modes. Results indicate that for the American subjects there were advantages to alphanumeric and combined modes, compared to the pictorial mode, in terms of performance time and errors. For Chinese subjects, there were advantages to pictorial and combined modes, compared with alphanumeric mode; their initial error rate also was lower using a combined mode than when using an alphanumeric one.

Usability is becoming a more and more important software criterion, but the present usability measurement methods are either difficult to apply, or overly dependent upon evaluators' expertise. Based on human information processing theory, this study identified eight human factors considerations which are relevant to software usability. These considerations as well as the three stages of human information processing theory formed the framework from which our Purdue Usability Testing Questionnaire (PUTQ) is derived. An experiment was conducted to test the validity of PUTQ. The experiment result showed high correlation between PUTQ and the Questionnaire for User Interaction Satisfaction (QUIS version 5.5). In addition, PUTQ detected the differences in user performance between two experimental interface systems, but QUIS failed to do so.

An experiment was conducted to examine skill differences in the control strategy for computer program comprehension. A computer program along with its hierarchy of program plans was provided to 10 intermediate and 10 novice computer programmers. Each program plan is known as a program segment to the subjects. A random list of plan goals was also provided to the subjects. The subjects were asked to match each program segment with its goal while they were comprehending the program. Several measures of the subjects' performance and control strategy were collected and analysed. The results indicated the use of an overall top-down strategy by both intermediates and novices for program comprehension. Novices' control strategies involved more opportunistic elements than experts' in the overall top-down process of program comprehension. Those differences in the control strategy between intermediates and novices result in better performance in intermediates than novices.

Determining the most appropriate Machine Learning (ML) method, system, or algorithm for a particular application is not trivial. This article reports on a survey of 103 experts specializing in ML who were asked to rate ML method appropriateness to intelligent tasks. Ratings were captured via a structured questionnaire including 12 ML methods and 9 task categories. Results showed that the experts mapped particular ML methods to task categories. Factor analysis revealed three fundamental factors, which explained most of the variance in the expert ratings. Machine learning methods could be grouped on the basis of these factors into six application categories, wherein one or more methods were deemed most appropriate by the evaluated group of experts. This, in turn, concludes that cooperation between alternative ML methods may be necessary to support one or more intelligent tasks.

This paper addresses the possible relation of cognitive abilities of experts on the effectiveness of acquired knowledge for three different tasks (diagnosis, debugging and interpretation) and four different methods of knowledge elicitation (interview, protocol, induction and repertory grid). Based on task analysis and the analysis of method of knowledge elicitation, ten cognitive abilities have been identified. Experimental data indicate that the cognitive abilities of experts affect significantly the effectiveness of the elicited data and the percentage of total knowledge acquired.

Computer users vary greatly in their abilities to use a software interface efficiently. One factor that apparently affects users’ efficiency in using an interface is the changes in their skill levels. In this study, an adaptive interface (of menu and command) is presented that dynamically adjusts to users’ changing skill levels. The mechanism of an adaptive interface is described and discussed. The validity and usability of the adaptive interface is tested with 40 participants in an experiment that used a between‐subject experimental design for interface style. The independent variables were interface style (menu, command, hybrid, and adaptive) and skill level (starting session and ending sessions). The dependent variables were task completion time, number of steps used, ratio (of using menu mode over menu and command modes), perceived memory load, and satisfaction with the interface styles. The task‐completion time and ratio data indicate that the adaptive interface produced significantly better performance than the static hybrid interface at the end of the training sessions for experienced computer users. No significant differences were found for memory load and satisfaction ratings across the four interface styles.

The objective of the research was to propose and validate a theoretically meaningful link between three constructs of hierarchical menu design: menu dimension, task complexity, and user knowledge structure. Twenty-four subjects participated in a nested factorial experiment. The subjects performed a menu retrieval task using a hierarchical menu system constructed for use in the domain of utility boiler control. The dependent variables were time to respond and accuracy. The independent variables were menu dimension, task complexity and user knowledge structure. Four hypotheses were tested. The foundation of the hypotheses was based upon the premise that when task complexity is low, the short-term memory requirements of the menu retrieval task are low. Thus, the user's knowledge structure will not affect performance because it is not required for the chunking of visual information. The objectives of this research were met and are presented in the context of an information processing model for psychomotor tasks.

Knowledge elidtation is an expensive and vital part in the construction of knowledge‐based systems. This paper indicates that the acquisition of procedural knowledge can significantly be improved, depending on the tasks (interpretation, debugging, or diagnosis) for which the knowledge is elicited; the method of knowledge elicitation (protocol, interview, induction, or repertory grid), and the number of experts (from one to six) from whom knowledge is elicited. On average, for all conditions the percentage of acquired procedural knowledge increased by two‐fold from using one to six experts. The optimal cost‐benefit utility may be achieved by using three experts for knowledge elicitation.

This study investigated quantitative and qualitative differences between experts and novices in knowledge structure, specifically in their chunking of computer software knowledge. An experiment was conducted to collect pairwise relatedness ratings of 23 concepts in C computer programming from 10 experts and 10 novices. Correlation analyses of relatedness ratings were performed to examine expert‐novice differences in overall knowledge structure. The intragroup correlation coefficients of experts were greater than the intragroup correlation coefficients of novices and the intergroup correlation coefficients between experts and novices. Hence, there existed structural differences of knowledge between experts and novices. To examine how experts differ from novices quantitatively and qualitatively in their knowledge chunking, the relatedness ratings of experts were averaged within the group to give a single set of relatedness ratings, and the relatedness ratings of novices were also averaged within the group to give a single set of relatedness ratings. Then the hierarchical clustering analyses were performed on the set of relatedness ratings for the experts group and on the set of relatedness ratings for the novices group, respectively. The hierarchical clustering of C concepts made by experts and the hierarchical clustering of C concepts made by novices indicated that novices had more but smaller knowledge chunks than experts for the common set of knowledge, and thatthe rough chunking of knowledge made by novices was qualitatively similar to the rough chunking of knowledge made by experts, although on a more detailed level qualitative differences still existed.

This paper describes the development of a conceptual model of an interaction system for future human-computer interaction. It is suggested that an integrated system is the most promising solution for diverse users and tasks. A ‘ hybrid interaction system’ is considered, which tries to efficiently direct manipulation, menu selection, and natural language. The mechanism of the natural language interface module is described in more detail. Finally, the allocation of functionalities for generalized tasks on the conceptual model is considered from the taxonomic approach.

In order to meet the goal of user comfort of information displays, visual problems of video display terminal (VDT) work were studied through the analysis of visual functions in two experiments. Eye movement analysis, in Experiment 1, revealed that VDT operators had to move their eyes 2.5 times faster than traditional clerical workers. Lens accommodation, pupil size, and subjective visual comfort were investigated in Experiment 2. A significant correlation was found between the velocity of lens accommodation and the subjective visual comfort while viewing seven different displays (r = .809). A positive‐type cathode‐ray tube (CRT), which has dark characters on a light background, was ascertained to be the most appropriate display type, while working with a liquid crystal display (LCD) was considered to be the least visually comfortable, with the lowest accommodative velocity.

The effects of two social variables, job enrichment and individual/group efforts, on the cognitive processing of a text‐editing task, are examined experimentally. By analyzing the keystrokes and the pauses between keystrokes, methods are developed to examine cognitive performance on the task by investigating the hierarchical structure of the cognitive goals, by classifying the cognitive strategies used by the subjects in the task, and by determining a measure of the cognitive efficiency of the goal structure. Differences occurred in cognitive performance based upon job enrichment. Individuals in an unenriched job environment showed no evidence of understanding the cognitive strategies of the other group member in the two‐member group so that cognitive performance did not improve with group experience, dissimilarity of cognitive strategies within a group did not affect the time to perform the task in a group, and the overall group strategy was dependent only on the strategy of the typist in the text‐editing task. On the other hand, in an enriched job environment, the individual group members apparently communicated cognitive strategy information to the other group member because cognitive efficiency increased with experience in the group, dissimilarity or dispersion of cognitive strategies of individual group members caused the pause times between keystrokes to be increased, the more cognitive strategies in which the group members were exposed the more cognitively efficient was the group strategy, and job satisfaction was dependent upon the similarity of the two group members’ cognitive strategies. These results were discussed in terms of the impact of human‐human interaction on specifying the conditions of human‐computer interaction tasks.

The objective of this study was to examine usefulness of fuzzy methodologies in the analysis and design of human‐computer interaction. A framework for generalization of the Goals‐Operators‐Methods‐Selection Rules (GOMS) model, and its fuzzy version was proposed. An experimental verification of the fuzzy GOMS model was also provided. A total of six subjects participated in two laboratory experiments. These experiments were performed in order to validate the proposed fuzzy GOMS model for the text editing task described in information processing terms. The subjects were not familiar with the text files to be edited, and the task was performed from the subject's own office and desk. All subjects were familiar with and regularly used the VI screen editor. The experiments consisted of the following steps: (1) the subject performed a familiar text editing task using a screen editor (VI); (2) the methods by which the subject achieved his goals (word location) as well as selection rules were elicited; (3) several compatibility functions for fuzzy terms used by the subject were derived; and (4) once all the rules, methods, and corresponding membership functions have been elicited, the theory of possibility was used to model the expert's rule selection process. For this purpose, each of the potential rules was assigned a possibility measure equal to the membership value(s) derived during the elicitation phase of experiment Finally, the selected methods were compared to non‐fuzzy predictions and actual experimental data. It was shown that overall, across all subjects and trials of the main editing task, the fuzzy‐based COMS model predicted significantly more of the subject responses, than did the non‐fuzzy COMS model.