Existing research has investigated whether virtual representations perceived to be controlled by humans (i.e., avatars) or those perceived to be controlled by computer algorithms (i.e., agents) are more influential. A meta-analysis (N = 32) examined the model of social influence in virtual environments (Blascovich, 2002) and investigated whether agents and avatars in virtual environments elicit different levels of social influence. Results indicated that perceived avatars produced stronger responses than perceived agents. Level of immersion (desktop vs. fully immersive), dependent variable type (subjective vs. objective), task type (competitive vs. cooperative vs. neutral), and actual control of the representation (human vs. computer) were examined as moderators. An interaction effect revealed that studies conducted on a desktop that used objective measures showed a stronger effect for agency than those that were conducted on a desktop but used subjective measures. Competitive and cooperative tasks showed greater agency effects than neutral tasks. Studies in which both conditions were actually human controlled showed greater agency effects than studies in which both conditions were actually computer controlled. We discuss theoretical and design implications for human–computer interaction and computer-mediated communication.

Transformed social interaction (TSI) suggests that virtual environments have unique advantages over traditional forms of interpersonal communication. Recent research has demonstrated that a persuasive speaker can use these advantages to create a more persuasive message. However, little has been done to establish how a receiver of a persuasive message in a virtual, interactive environment might also use these advantages. Giving individuals the ability to customize a persuasive source may empower them and affect their perceptions of the persuasive message. In a 2(forewarned or not)×2(customize source or watch customization) experiment, participants were forewarned or not forewarned that they would be hearing a persuasive message about buying a new energy drink. Participants were then allowed to customize (or watch someone customize) the appearance of the speaker׳s avatar before the sales pitch. Participants who had the opportunity customize the speaker׳s appearance liked the product more and had higher purchase intentions than those who did not have control, regardless of forewarning. Findings suggest a new application for TSI, and that both users and sources may benefit when users have the power to customize the appearance of a virtual salesperson.