This paper presents the mathematical modeling of flapping flight inch-size micro aerial vehicles (MAVs), namely micromechanical flying insects (MFIs). The target robotic insects are electromechanical devices propelled by a pair of independent flapping wings to achieve sustained autonomous flight, thereby mimicking real insects. In this paper, we describe the system dynamic models which include several elements that are substantially different from those present in fixed or rotary wing MAVs. These models include the wing-thorax dynamics, the flapping flight aerodynamics at a low Reynolds number regime, the body dynamics, and the biomimetic sensory system consisting of ocelli, halteres, magnetic compass, and optical flow sensors. The mathematical models are developed based on biological principles, analytical models, and experimental data. They are presented in the Virtual Insect Flight Simulator (VIFS) and are integrated together to give a realistic simulation for MFI and insect flight. VIFS is a software tool intended for modeling flapping flight mechanisms and for testing and evaluating the performance of different flight control algorithms.

In this paper, we study attitude stabilization strategies via output sensor feedback for micro aerial vehicles (MAVs), inch-size robots capable of autonomous flight. In order to compensate for the size and power limitations of MAVs, we introduce the ocelli and halteres, the body orientation and rotation sensing mechanisms used by flying insects. The analysis and simulations of these sensors show the feasibility of using such biologically inspired approaches to build biomimetic gyroscopes and angular position detectors. Finally, attitude stabilization techniques based on these sensors are proposed and successfully tested on an aerodynamic model for a micromechanical flying insect (NIFI). To the authors' knowledge, this is the first attempt in using output feedback from biomimetic devices with ocelli and halteres to achieve attitude stabilization in MAVs.

Four prototypes of biomimetic sensors have been designed and implemented for flight control of a robotic flying insect. The ocelli use four photodiodes to detect changes in light intensity in the surrounding. The halteres use piezo-actuated vibrating structures to sense body rotational velocities via the Coriolis forces. The optic flow sensors consist of linear arrays of elementary motion detectors (EMDs) to register optic flows. The magnetic field sensor uses three metal loops to detect changes in the magnetic field. Despite simplicity and novelty, the preliminary tests on these devices showed promising performance for using such biomimetic sensors on a robotic flying insect.

Body rotation and orientation sensing mechanisms used by flying insects are introduced and their mathematical models are presented. The analysis and simulations of these models showed the feasibility of using such biologically inspired approaches to build biomimetic gyroscopes and angular position detectors. Further, an approximate rigid body model for the insect body dynamics is developed so that attitude stabilization techniques for a flying robotic insect can be tested to illustrate the utility of these novel sensor architectures. To the authors' knowledge, this is the first attempt in using output feedback from biomimetic devices such as ocelli and halters to achieve attitude stabilization.

The mechanism which-real flying insects use to detect body rotation has been simulated. The results show that an angular rate sensor can be made based on such a biological mechanism. Two types of biomimetic gyroscopes have been constructed using foils of stainless steel. The first device is connected directly to a compliant cantilever. The second device is placed on a mechanically amplifying fourbar structure. Both devices are driven by piezoelectric actuators and detect the Coriolis force using strain gages. The experimental results show successful measurements of angular velocities and these devices have the benefits of low power and high sensitivity.

Presents the design of the software simulator, VIFS, for insect flight. In particular, it is intended to estimate flight control algorithms and performance for a micromechanical flying insect (MFI), a 10-25 mm (wingtip-to-wingtip) device eventually capable of sustained autonomous flight. The VIFS is an end-to-end tool composed of several modular blocks which model actuator dynamics, wing aerodynamics, body motion, visual and inertial sensors, environment perception, and control algorithms. A 3D virtual environment simulation is also developed as a visualization tool. We present the current state of art of its implementation and preliminary results.