OSCAR II is a twin-engine aerial demonstrator equipped with a monocular visual system, which manages to keep its gaze and its heading steadily fixed on a target (i.e., a dark edge or a bar) in spite of the severe random perturbations applied to its body via a ducted fan. The tethered robot stabilizes its gaze on the basis of two oculomotor reflexes (ORs) inspired by studies on animals: 1) a visual-fixation reflex (VFR) and 2) a vestibulo-ocular reflex (VOR). One of the key features of this robot is that the eye is decoupled mechanically from the body about the vertical (i.e., yaw) axis. To meet the conflicting requirements of high accuracy and fast ocular responses, a miniature (2.4 g) voice-coil motor (VCM) was used, which enables the eye to make a change of orientation with an unusually short rise time (19 ms). The robot, which was equipped with a high-bandwidth (7 Hz) ¿VOR,¿ which is based on an inertial microrate gyro, is capable of accurate visual fixation as long as there is light. The robot is also able to pursue a moving target in the presence of erratic gusts of wind. Here, we present the two interdependent control schemes driving the eye in the robot and the robot in space with no knowledge of the robot's angular position. This ¿steering-by-gazing¿ control strategy, which is implemented on this lightweight (100 g) miniature aerial robot, demonstrates the effectiveness of this biomimetic visual/inertial heading control strategy.

Autonomous guidance of micro-air vehicles (MAVs) in unknown environments is a challenging task because these artificial creatures have small aeromechanical time constants, which make them prone to be disturbed by gusts of wind. Flying insects are subject to quite similar kinds of disturbances, yet they navigate swiftly and deftly. Flying insects display high- performance visuo-motor control systems that have stood the test of time. They can therefore teach us how vision can be used for immediate and vital actions. We built a 50-gram tethered aerial demonstrator, called OSCAR II, which manages to keep its gaze steadily fixating a target (a dark edge), in spite of nasty thumps that we deliberately gave to its body with a custom-made "slapping machine". The robot's agile yaw reactions are based on: (1) a mechanical decoupling of the eye from the body, (2) an active coupling of the robot's heading with its gaze, (3) a Visual Fixation Reflex (VFR), (4) a Vestibulo-Ocular Reflex (VOR), (5) an accurate and fast actuator (voice coil motor, VCM). The actuator is a 2.4-gram voice coil motor that is able to rotate the eye with a rise time as small as 12 ms, that is, much shorter than the rise time of human oculo-motor saccades. In connection with a micro-rate gyro, this actuator endows the robot with a high performance "vestibulo ocular reflex" that keeps the gaze locked onto the target whatever perturbations in yaw affect the robot's body. Whenever the robot is destabilized (e.g., by a slap applied on one side), the gaze keeps fixating the target, while being the reference to which the robot's heading is servoed. It then takes the robot only 0.6 s to realign its heading with its gaze.