In this paper, we discuss the potential of shared Cross-Reality (CR) for individuals with Neurodevelopmental Disorders (NDDs) and describe the development and preliminary evaluation of a system that implements this approach, called Social Match UP (SMUP). SMUP integrates Virtual Reality (VR) and Augmented Reality (AR) within a single cooperative game, allowing seamless transitions between the two forms of virtuality. Additionally, it incorporates a conversational assistant powered by a Large Language Model (LLM) to provide real-time guidance, encourage communication, and promote user engagement. An exploratory study was conducted with four participants diagnosed with NDDs, focusing on the usability of CR transitions and users’ perceptions of the conversational assistant. Given the small sample size, results are intended to inform design implications rather than establish statistical significance. While the ability to switch between VR and AR was acknowledged as a valuable feature, participants found the transition difficult to use, occasionally disrupting their immersion. VR was generally preferred over AR, though it remains unclear whether this preference was due to usability challenges related to reality switching. The results also indicate that the LLM-powered assistant was perceived as friendly and engaging, fostering a sense of presence, particularly in VR settings, where it felt more realistic and immersive.

Spatialized audio cues in Augmented Reality (AR) provide an alternative to visually dominated navigation systems, yet little is known about how device type and cue design jointly shape user experience and performance. This study presents a within-subject experiment comparing artificial versus nature sounds across two AR platforms: a smartphone and a mixed-reality headset. Thirty-four participants completed audio-only outdoor navigation tasks, with 27 included in the final analysis. Subjective measures (UEQ, NASA-TLX, custom items) and objective metrics (completion time, path efficiency) were collected. Results showed that nature sounds were rated significantly higher in efficiency, pleasantness, and overall navigation experience compared to artificial sounds, while device type had limited influence on subjective ratings. Participants with prior AR audio navigation experience completed tasks faster, suggesting training benefits. These findings highlight the importance of cue design and user adaptation for future AR navigation systems.

Autonomy is a central concern for many caregivers of autistic individuals, particularly in domains such as mobility, where environmental complexity and variability pose significant challenges. In this work, we explore a cross-reality approach to support the development of autonomous public transportation skills—specifically intercity train travel—through a combination of Virtual Reality (VR), in-situ Augmented Reality (AR), and a conversational agent. Our system provides at-home VR training to simulate travel scenarios, AR-based support during real-world travel, and interactive guidance through a conversational interface, creating a cohesive and adaptive learning experience. We conducted a field study with ten participants over three months, which showed autonomy improvements comparable to state-of-the-art methods. Our findings contribute updated insights and design considerations for the application of cross-reality systems in accessibility and mobility training for neurodiverse users.

The usage of virtual avatars in healthcare applications has become widely popular; however, certain critical aspects, such as social distancing and avatar size, remain insufficiently explored. This research investigates user experience and preferences when interacting with a healthcare application utilizing virtual avatars displayed in different sizes. For our study, we had 23 participants interacting with five different avatars (a human-size avatar followed by four, respectively, smaller avatars in a randomized order) varying in size, projected on a wall in front of them. The avatars were fully integrated with an artificial intelligence chatbot to make them conversational. Users were asked to rate the usability of the system after interacting with each avatar and complete a survey regarding trust and an additional questionnaire on social presence. The results of this study show that avatar size significantly influences the perceived attractiveness and perspicuity with the medium-sized avatars having received the highest ratings. Social presence correlated strongly with stimulation and attractiveness, suggesting that an avatar’s visual appeal and interactivity influenced user engagement more than its physical size. Additionally, we observed a tendency for gender-specific differences on some of the UEQ+ scales, with male participants tending to prefer human-sized representations, while female participants slightly favored smaller avatars. These findings highlight the importance of avatar design and representation in optimizing user experience and trust in virtual healthcare environments.

As augmented reality (AR) becomes increasingly prevalent in mobile and context-aware applications, the role of auditory cues in guiding users through physical environments is becoming critical. This study investigates the effectiveness and user experience of various categories of audio cues, including fully non-verbal sounds and speech-derived Spearcons, during outdoor navigation tasks using the Meta Quest 3 headset. Twenty participants navigated five outdoor routes using audio-only cue types: Artificial Sounds, Nature Sounds, Spearcons, Musical Instruments, and Auditory Icons. Subjective evaluations were collected to assess the perceived effectiveness and user experience of each sound type. Results revealed significant differences in perceived novelty and stimulation across sound types. Artificial Sounds and Musical Instruments were rated higher than Spearcons in novelty, while Artificial Sounds were also rated higher than Spearcons in stimulation. Overall preference was evenly split between Nature Sounds and Artificial Sounds. These findings suggest that incorporating aspects of novelty and user engagement in auditory feedback design may enhance the effectiveness of AR navigation systems.

Precise temporal and spatial alignment is critical in collaborative Augmented Reality (AR) where users rely on shared visual information to coordinate actions. System latency and object misalignment can disrupt communication, reduce task efficiency, and negatively impact the overall user experience. While previous research has primarily focused on individual AR interactions, the impact of these inconsistencies on collaboration remains underexplored. This article investigates how user experience and task load are affected by object misalignment and time delay in a shared AR space. To examine these factors, we conducted an experiment with 32 participants, organized into 16 pairs, who collaboratively completed a spatial placement task. Within each condition, both participants alternated roles, taking turns as the leader—providing verbal placement instructions—and the builder—executing the placement. Six conditions were tested, manipulating object alignment (perfectly aligned vs. randomly misaligned) and time delay (0s, 0.1s, 0.4s). The misalignment was applied randomly to each virtual object with a shift of ±20 cm on every axis to create a clear distinction in spatial perception. User experience and task load were assessed to evaluate how these factors influence collaboration and interaction in AR environments. Results showed that spatial misalignment significantly increased perceived workload (NASA-TLX) and lowered user ratings in Pragmatic quality and Attractiveness (UEQ), while time delay had a more limited effect. These findings highlight the critical role of spatial accuracy in maintaining collaboration quality in AR.

Controlling Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) is a cognitively demanding task, with accidents often arising from insufficient situational awareness, inadequate training, and bad user experiences. Providing more intuitive and immersive visual feedback—particularly through Digital Twin technologies—offers new opportunities to enhance pilot awareness and the overall experience quality. In this study, we investigate how different virtual points of view (POVs) influence user experience and performance during UAV piloting in Virtual Reality (VR), utilizing a digital twin that faithfully replicates the real-world flight environment. We developed a VR application that enables participants to control a physical DJI Mini 4 Pro drone while immersed in a digital twin with four distinct camera perspectives: Baseline View (static external), First Person View, Chase View, and Third Person View. Nineteen participants completed a series of ring-based obstacle courses from each perspective. In addition to objective flight data, we collected standardized subjective assessments of user experience, presence, workload, cybersickness, and situational awareness. Quantitative analyses revealed that the First Person View was associated with significantly higher mental demand and effort, greater trajectory deviation, but smoother control inputs compared to the Third Person and Chase perspectives. Complementing these findings, preference data indicated that the Third Person View was most consistently favored, whereas the First Person View elicited polarized reactions.

The article investigates cooperative interaction in Virtual Reality (VR) and Augmented Reality (AR) for individuals with neurodevelopmental disorders (NDDs) and compares the potential of these interaction paradigms to enhance the communication skills of this population. Two versions of a cooperative game called SMUP (Social Match UP) were created in AR and VR, respectively, involving NDD specialists in the co-design process. During a within-subjects empirical study involving 30 subjects with NDD, we measured both the usability and verbal interaction of the two versions, known as SMUP-AR and SMUP-VR. The findings suggest that both SMUP-AR and SMUP-VR exhibited a good degree of usability for individuals with NDD, with no statistically significant differences between the two versions. However, the evaluation of communication skills, based on the analysis of the verbal production of users under the two experimental conditions, indicates that SMUP-AR had a stronger effect in promoting dialogic interaction compared to SMUP-VR. In addition, the paper discusses insights from the study on the UX design of cooperative AR and VR technology for people with NDD.

One of the most promising technologies inside the Extended Reality (XR) spectrum is Augmented Reality. This technology is already in people’s pockets regarding Mobile Augmented Reality with their smartphones. The scientific community still needs answers about how humans could and should interact in environments where perceived stimuli are different from fully physical or digital circumstances. Moreover, it is still being determined if people accept these new technologies in different social environments and interaction settings or if some obstacles could exist. This paper explores the impact of the Social Environment and the Focus of social interaction on users while playing a location-based augmented reality game, measuring it with user experience and social acceptance indicators. An empirical study in a within-subject fashion was performed in different social environments and under different settings of social interaction focus with N = 28 participants compiling self-reported questionnaires after playing a Scavenger Hunt in Augmented Reality. The measures from two different Social Environments (Crowded vs. Uncrowded) resulted in statistically relevant mean differences with indicators from the Social Acceptability dimension. Moreover, the analyses show statistically relevant differences between the variances from different degrees of Social Interaction Focus with Overall Social Presence, Perceived Psychological Engagement, Perceived Attentional Engagement, and Perceived Emotional Contagion. The results suggest that a location-based AR game played in different social environments and settings can influence the user experience’s social dimension. Therefore, they should be carefully considered while designing immersive technological experiences in public spaces involving social interactions between players.

The collaboration in co-located shared environments has sparked an increased interest in immersive technologies, including Augmented Reality (AR). Since research in this field has primarily focused on individual user experiences in AR, the collaborative aspects within shared AR spaces remain less explored, and fewer studies can provide guidelines for designing this type of experience. This article investigates how the user experience in a collaborative shared AR space is affected by divergent perceptions of virtual objects and the effects of positional synchrony and avatars. For this purpose, we developed an AR app and used two distinct experimental conditions to study the influencing factors. Forty-eight participants, organized into 24 pairs, participated in the experiment and jointly interacted with shared virtual objects. Results indicate that divergent perceptions of virtual objects did not directly influence communication and collaboration dynamics. Conversely, positional synchrony emerged as a critical factor, significantly enhancing the quality of the collaborative experience. On the contrary, while not negligible, avatars played a relatively less pronounced role in influencing these dynamics. These findings can potentially offer valuable practical insights, guiding the development of future collaborative AR/VR environments.

The current research evaluates user experience and preference when interacting with a patient-reported outcome measure (PROM) healthcare application displayed on a single tablet in comparison to interaction with the same application distributed across two tablets. We conducted a within-subject user study with 43 participants who engaged with and rated the usability of our system and participated in a post-experiment interview to collect subjective data. Our findings showed significantly higher usability and higher pragmatic quality ratings for the single tablet condition. However, some users attribute a higher level of presence to the avatar and prefer it to be placed on a second tablet.

Autism Spectrum Disorder is a neurodevelopmental condition that can affect autonomy and independence. Our research explores the integration of Cross-Reality and Conversational Agents for Autistic persons to improve ability and confidence in everyday life situations. We combine two technologies of the Virtual-Real continuum. User experiences unfold from the simulation of tasks in VR to the execution of similar tasks supported by AR in the real world. A speech-based Conversational Agent is integrated with both VR and AR. It provides contextualized help, promotes generalization, and stimulates users to apply what they learned in the virtual space. The paper presents the approach and describes an empirical study involving 17 young Autistic persons.

Although there are several aspects that might impact one's feeling of immersion or presence in a virtual environment, noises in the actual world are often overlooked. Distractions (such as noises or lights) may have an effect on a person's mental or emotional state in real life, and these interruptions can be disturbing while trying to focus on work. With a steady stream of distractions, one may eventually lose interest and make mistakes or stop the activity. The goal of this research is to better understand the impact of various ambient sounds on presence, immersion, and decision-making by using virtual reality and audio rendering technology. This study's sound sources were obtained and recorded from several real-life sources before being mixed into the virtual world. These audio recordings have been shown to influence a person's decision-making skills by generating a sudden shift in different emotional states (such as annoyance and anger). In certain circumstances, binaural recording is used to provide the listener with a 3D stereo sound experience. They were triggered at random intervals while the user was in the virtual environment. Based on the findings of the study presented in this paper, some types of noises, such as continuous and impulsive noise, have a negative impact on user experience by reducing immersion in the virtual reality environment. It was also discovered that the more interaction there was, the more mental work was required to complete the activities.

Nowadays, Augmented Reality (AR) is available on almost all smartphones creating some exciting interaction opportunities but also challenges. For example, already after the famous AR app Pokemon GO was released in July 2016, numerous accidents related to the use of the app were reported by users. At the same time, the spread of AR can be noticed in the tourism industry, enabling tourists to explore their surroundings in new ways but also exposing them to safety issues. This preliminary study explores users' sense of safety when manipulating the amount and UI elements visualization parameters of Point of Interest (POI) markers in a developed AR application. The results show that the amount of POI markers that are displayed is significant for participants' sense of safety. The influence of manipulating UI elements in terms of “transparency”, “color”, and “size” cannot be proven. Nevertheless, most tested people stated that manipulating transparency and size somehow influences their sense of safety, so a closer look at them should be taken in future studies.

Communication can be defined as the understanding and exchanging of meaningful messages. The role of communication is central to the lives of human beings as, everyday, we use language to interact with the world around us. Linguistic skills play a fundamental role in this scenario and Language Disorders (LD) are impairments that limit the processing of linguistic information. Early and accurate identification of LD is thus essential to promote lifelong learning and well-being. From an evolutionary perspective, some human language constructs evolved from an ancestral motor system and share the same neural pathways in the Broca’s area of the brain. This suggests a correlation between action and language. If such a relationship is well established and reliable, it would be possible to use the former as a marker of the latter. The hypothesis of our work, in a nutshell, is that movement can be a predictor of language. To study this correlation, we developed C(H)o(L)ordination, a Mixed Reality (MR) application for HoloLens 2. The application offers several activities based on visual stimuli involving motor movements, which tap on the same skills needed to perform some language tasks. We performed an exploratory study with N=22 users to test the application usability and user experience. The results suggest that C(H)o(L)ordination is a usable and powerful tool to gather insights on the ongoing debate about language evolution and language disorders.

Cognitive rigidity and behavioral and communication problems are the most common symptoms that characterize Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD). In fact, people with ASD face complications in everyday life, from interacting with other persons to being autonomous in the most ordinary daily tasks. To overcome these limitations and improve their quality of life, we developed 5A. 5A exploits cutting-edge technologies such as Virtual Reality (VR), Augmented Reality (AR), and Conversational Agents (CA), combining smartphones and wearable headsets to offer new forms of intervention to persons with ASD. Virtual reality experiences enable learning common tasks, such as using public transport, through simulation in a safe environment. When people are in similar real-life situations, AR can help them generalize the skills they have learned in VR by overlaying interactive media assets on top of the view of the physical world around them. A customizable conversational assistant provides individualized prompts and feedback in both VR and AR to provide maximum user support.

Cognitive impairment is a condition that results in a person’s inability to remember, learn, concentrate or make decisions that affect his/her everyday life. The assessment of these deficits is usually performed using standardized paper and pencil or computerized tests within a controlled clinical setting. Many traditionally designed tools show only low to moderate levels of ecological validity, limiting the reliability of the collected measures. The proposed system adapts existing screening tests within an immersive virtual reality environment with 360° video, recreating a familiar setting for the patient. This faithful reproduction of everyday environments and situations can enhance the ecological validity of the assessment procedure while maintaining a standardized stimuli delivery, all in a controlled and safe setting. As a computerized system, virtual reality technology allows an error-free computation of the test scores, here collected by means of accuracy for each task. The system involves many technologies aimed at capturing any kind of user input provided by the patient. Additionally, using a visor with integrated eye-tracker sensor, the system can register the visual exploration pattern adopted by the patient during the task execution, providing information concerning the attentional and visuo-spatial functioning which are not obtainable using traditional assessment procedures. Finally, the results of an exploratory study that was conducted with 11 users on the reliability and usability of the system are presented.

Nowadays, Virtual Reality (VR) technology can be potentially used everywhere through wearable head-mounted displays. Nevertheless, it is still uncommon to see VR devices used in public settings. In these contexts, unaware bystanders in the surroundings might influence the User Experience (UX) and create concerns about the social acceptability of this technology. The user acts in a Social Environment (SE), characterized by surrounding people's number, proximity, and behavior. Simultaneously, VR applications often require a different degree of interactivity concerning body movements and controllers interaction. In this paper, the influence of Social Environments, and degree of interactivity on User Experience and social acceptability is investigated. Four Social Environments were simulated employing 360° Videos, and two VR games developed with two levels of interactivity. Results showed a statistically significant influence of Social Environments on Overall UX as well as Public VR, Interaction, Isolation, Privacy and Safety acceptability, and of the degree of interactivity on Presence, Valence, Arousal, Overall UX, UX Hedonic quality, and Safety acceptability. Findings indicate that Social Environments and degree of interactivity should be taken into account while designing VR applications.

Mixed Reality (MR) has been receiving increasing interest in the rehabilitation of people with Cognitive Disabilities. The power of MR in the context of therapies is the possibility to maintain a physical and psychological relationship with the surrounding environment while experiencing customized multimedia content and tasks that are appropriate for the needs of these users. The purpose of this work is to explore the potential of MR applications integrated with interactive speech-based Virtual Assistants. We present HoloLearn, an application for Microsoft HoloLens, which aims to help people with Cognitive Disabilities to improve their autonomy and learn simple activities of their everyday life (e.g., setting the table). The paper discusses the design features of the Virtual Assistant created and the results of a controlled study. The participants involved were 15 subjects with Cognitive Disabilities who used HoloLearn in two experimental conditions - with and without a Virtual Assistant. The results, although preliminary, indicate that enriching a MR experience with the presence of a speech-based Virtual Assistant would improve the user performance in the execution of the MR activities.

Our research explores the potential of wearable Mixed Reality (MR) for people with Neuro-Developmental Disorders (NDD). The paper presents HoloLearn, a MR application designed in cooperation with NDD experts and implemented using HoloLens technology. The goal of HoloLearn is to help people with NDD learn how to perform simple everyday tasks in domestic environments and improve autonomy. An original feature of the system is the presence of a virtual assistant devoted to capture the user's attention and to give her/him hints during task execution in the MR environment. We performed an exploratory study involving 20 subjects with NDD to investigate the acceptability and usability of HoloLearn and its potential as a therapeutic tool. HoloLearn was well-accepted by the participants and the activities in the MR space were perceived as enjoyable, despite some usability problems associated to HoloLens interaction mechanism. More extensive and long term empirical research is needed to validate these early results, but our study suggests that HoloLearn could be adopted as a complement to more traditional interventions. Our work, and the lessons we learned, may help designers and developers of future MR applications devoted to people with NDD and to other people with similar needs.