Encrypted traffic classification is crucial for enhancing network management, service quality, and security. However, real-world network environments are inherently open-world scenarios in which traffic not only consists of known classes but also includes the continuous emergence of unknown classes. Existing deep learning methods typically rely on the closed-world assumption, which significantly limits their classification performance when dealing with unknown traffic types. This limitation makes it challenging to accurately classify known traffic classes and effectively identify unknown ones. Although few studies have focused on open-world scenarios, these methods often use staged strategies and struggle to reliably detect unknown traffic or to estimate novel classes. To address these challenges, we propose an end-to-end Fine-grained Encrypted traffic Classification method based on Open-set Semi-supervised Learning, called FEC-OSL. This method comprises three mutually reinforcing core components. First, we design a dual-branch flow feature extraction module to capture detailed and discriminative flow features. Second, we introduce a novel energy-based perspective that leverages energy-boundary learning to distinguish known traffic from unknown traffic, enabling precise detection of known classes. Finally, an adaptive deep clustering approach integrates feature learning with clustering to achieve fine-grained classification of unknown flows. We conduct extensive experiments on three real-world datasets, and the results validate that our proposed method exhibits outstanding performance in handling both known and unknown encrypted traffic in open-world scenarios.

Motivated by commodity detection in retail, this paper studies the problem of generating object bounding boxes in retail images. The existing object detection algorithms are not suitable due to the characteristics of the intensive distribution of commodities in intelligent retail containers. Therefore, we present a unified object detection framework used for dense scenarios in retail images, which consists of the hierarchical labeling pattern, the Similarity Recognition Network (SRN) subnetwork and the optimized NMS algorithm on the basis of YOLOv3. Three datasets are built to verify the effectiveness of the proposed framework, two of which are used for training the object detection network, and the other one is used for training the SRN subnetwork. The experimental results show that the proposed framework achieves a significant improvement for dense scenario in retail images compared with the traditional object detection algorithms.