In virtual reality, users are typically represented by and interact through a virtual body. Research frequently manipulates different features of these bodies. We analyze 208 studies to identify what aspects of virtual bodies are manipulated, how these manipulations affect interaction and other outcomes, and why they are assumed to do so. Based on the analysis, we propose a design space comprising seven types of visual manipulations: appearance, size, morphology, viewpoint, transfer, remapping, and control. We also synthesize findings on their effects—ranging from task performance to physiological responses and social outcomes—and examine the theories used to explain them, such as embodiment, Proteus effect, and presence. The design space helps researchers identify key variables and their interconnections in design and empirical research of virtual bodies. The synthesis further reveals unexplored causal connections and highlights theories that may account for observed effects.

VR interaction techniques define mappings between physical movements and virtual outcomes. While some mappings are learned through the adaptation of existing movement strategies, others require acquiring entirely new control policies. Drawing on motor learning theory, we introduce a design space that organizes these mappings into three families and provides a basis for reasoning about how the mappings are learned. To examine learning within individual families and their compositions, we start with two simple hand-based mappings, mirror reversal and cross-hand control, and their combination, allowing us to probe the design space in a controlled experiment with 96 participants. The mappings differ in initial difficulty, but participants achieve comparable overall learning. In the combined condition, prior exposure produces mapping specific start-up advantages. We discuss how this design space can support the analysis and design of VR mapping techniques.

Presence appears an important concept for virtual reality (VR): It is frequently measured with questionnaires, and theory and methods about it have been discussed in numerous works. Yet, it is unclear how to actually work with this concept: Why is presence important to measure, how to choose an appropriate questionnaire, and what to conclude about it based on findings? To answer these questions, we review how the concept is put to work in 288 VR papers from 2023 measuring presence with questionnaires. Our findings include that measuring presence is often motivated by another construct, such as user experience; the reasons for choosing a specific questionnaire are often weak or not reported at all; and high presence values are frequently used simply to validate an interaction technique. We propose recommendations for working with presence and formulate questions to direct future research.