The maritime sector is an integral part of the growing blue economy, and accessible and affordable communication is a current goal. However, offshore areas lack adequate wireless connectivity. While Satellite and Very High Frequency (VHF) communication can be used, they come with limitations in cost and latency that hinder autonomous ship operations. In contrast, mobile networks can extend land-based communication over water, support Internet of Things (IoT) use cases, and enable seamless autonomous ship operations promising significant benefits for the maritime sector. However, the primary challenge lies in establishing reliable connectivity in coastal regions. Therefore, this paper explores the feasibility of using 5G-enabled drones and floating mobile base stations (FMBS) to establish mobile connectivity in coastal areas. Specifically, we examine the use of 5G FR-1 frequency (700MHz), which offers broader coverage, lower power consumption, and better support for IoT and fast-moving users (e.g., on ships and cruises). We present a case study to provide internet service along a predetermined route, i.e., from Kristiansand to Amsterdam. We also assess the appropriate maritime propagation model to evaluate the performance of the proposed solution and its feasibility for providing reliable and efficient connectivity. Our calculations provide insight into the number of drones needed to establish a mobile network in that particular route. Our study demonstrates the potential of using 5G-enabled drones and FMBS to improve mobile communication in the maritime sector.

The eleven papers in this special section focus on industrial communication systems and technologies (ICS). Major requirements of the ICS are real-time support and dependability under all considered load and fault assumptions. The ICS may need to meet stringent deadlines as a basis for the stability in control loops and alarm monitoring. At the same time, high reliability and availability is demanded to avoid down times. In particular, reliability with respect to critical failure modes is of utmost importance for safety-critical applications where failures may result in significant financial losses or risk to humans and the environment. From the point of view of the information and communication technology (ICT), current ICS solutions are based on wired systems to support distributed industrial controls.

Wireless mesh networks have, in recent years, gained a strong foothold in the industry with a steady growing number of installations. Although wireless solutions are now “proven in use”, some of the challenges e.g. QoS which arise from this accelerated adoption have not fully been addressed. In this paper, a framework for tracking QoS and assessing the risk to performance of wireless mesh networks is proposed. This paper presents and consolidates a list of performance indicators which are relevant to industrial applications. Based on those indicators, a method to visualize them in a single graph with a unified scale is introduced. This QoS based application profiling approach keeps track of overall network performance and relevant trade-offs. Moreover, this paper proposes a method to assess the risk to network performance and eventually to QoS by using historical statistical data.

Wireless communication is already used in process automation for process monitoring. The next stage of implementation of wireless technology in industrial applications is for process control. The need for wireless networked control systems has evolved because of the necessity for extensibility, mobility, modularity, fast deployment, and reduced installation and maintenance cost. These benefits are only applicable given that the wireless network of choice can meet the strict requirements of process control applications, such as latency. In this regard, this paper is an effort towards identifying current industry practices related to implementing process control over a wireless link and evaluates the suitability of ISA100.11a network for use in process control through experiments.

The adoption of wireless technology for industrial wireless instrumentation requires high-quality communication performance. The use of transmission power control (TPC) can help address industrial issues concerning energy consumption, interference, and fading. This paper presents a TPC algorithm designed for industrial applications based on theoretical and empirical studies. It is shown that the proposed algorithm adapts to variations in link quality, and is hardware-independent and practical.

Wireless communication is one of the fastest growing technologies in process automation and now targets main stream applications. One such application is a safety application; it is unique in its own rights, as any problem with safety related equipment, network or system can compromise on-site safety. For the wired networks which serve safety applications, they are designed to ensure QoS. Therefore, controlling delay, jitter, packet loss rate and bandwidth is critical. To achieve the same performance over an envisioned wireless network with shared communication medium, various problems are to be dealt with. In this regard, this paper is an effort towards the design of a SIL compliant solution. Hence, this paper addresses the key constraints of the wireless technology and demonstrates the proof-of-concept through a field trial.

The paper provides a study on the use of Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) in refineries, petrochemicals, underwater development facilities, and oil and gas platforms. The work focuses on networks that monitor the production process, to either prevent or detect health and safety issues or to enhance production. WSN applications offer great opportunities for production optimization where the use of wired counterparts may prove to be prohibitive. They can be used to remotely monitor pipelines, natural gas leaks, corrosion, H2S, equipment condition, and real-time reservoir status. Data gathered by such devices enables new insights into plant operation and innovative solutions that aids the oil, gas and resources industries in improving platform safety, optimizing operations, preventing problems, tolerating errors, and reducing operating costs. In this paper, we survey a number of WSN applications in oil, gas and resources industry operations.

The monitoring of oil and gas plants using sensors allows for greater insight into safety and operational performance. However, as a result of strict installation regulations of powered sensors near oil and gas fittings, the introduction of new wired sensors to optimize end-of-lifecycle plants has been expensive, complex and time consuming. Recent advances in wireless technology have enabled low-cost Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) capable of robust and reliable communication. However, the critical WSN security issues have not been sparsely investigated. The goal of this paper is to define the security issues surrounding WSNs with specific focus on the oil and gas industry.

The WirelessHART specification has given the industry access to their first open standard specifically aimed at wireless instrumentation for factory automation. For WirelessHART to be a viable solution for the process and automation industry, it has to provide a robust and reliable alternative to today's wired networks.This paper presents the results of a performance evaluation of a WirelessHART network deployed in an industrial environment. It also presents a performance analysis and deployment considerations for IEEE 802.11g coexistence. The conclusion of the paper is that a WirelessHART network is capable of reliable operation in an industrial environment, and when coexisting with three IEEE 802.11g networks.

The monitoring of oil, gas and resources plant performance and the operational environment through sensors allows for greater insight into potential safety problems and operational requirements. Such solutions promote a safe and healthy work environment for all stakeholders and optimized operations. Intelligent techniques and the monitoring of key historical operational properties can be used to realize certain characteristics and patterns in operation data. Such solutions may enhance operational visualization, foresight, forecasting and maintenance schedules for effective and efficient operation and maintenance. This optimizes plant safety, production, turnarounds, shutdowns and maintenance and improves error tolerance and recovery. However, the development of robust devices that are able to perform in these remote and hostile requirements along with the intelligent solutions to structure, store, process and retrieve this information are difficult to realize. This paper investigates the use of wireless sensors and the related intelligent solutions in the oil, gas and resource industries.

This paper describes how a wireless sensor network (WSN) was deployed at the Gullfaks offshore Oil & Gas facility in the North Sea. At the Gullfaks field, decline in flow line pressure occasionally causes loss of flow from wells. This is not readily detected, and leads to large financial losses. The installation and maintenance of a traditional detection system is costly, complex and requires a production shutdown. In this case, a wireless temperature sensor network was chosen to predict the loss of flow from a well. Before deployment, the solution was tested in a semi- industrial environment to ensure that it fulfilled all requirements. The conclusion is that the described WSN solution enabled quick, relatively inexpensive and reliable detection of lost flow, thus enabling prompt action to re-establish this.

As a newly released industrial communication standard, WirelessHART complements the ever so successful HART field devices by providing the possible means for communicating via wireless channels. The WirelessHART standard is designed to offer simple configuration, flexible installation and easy access of instrument data, and at the same time, ensure robust and reliable communications. In this paper, we first look closely into the specifications and present a comprehensive overview of the standard by summarizing the main functions of the various protocol layers. We then survey the literature and identify amongst the existing methods and algorithms, which ones can be effectively adopted in implementing the standard. More specifically, we set our focus on issues relating to realization of the medium access layer and the network manager, which are essential in creating a successful WirelessHART network for specific applications.

The IEEE 802.15.4 specification has enabled low- power, low-cost wireless sensor networks (WSNs) capable of robust and reliable communication. For the Oil & Gas industry, switching from wired to wireless sensors cost-efficiently eliminates the need for cables, allows data collection in remote or hostile areas, and enables new applications. However, there are concerns related to the use of WSNs, of which reliability, power consumption and standardization are most important. This paper identifies technical requirements for WSN deployment within the confines of the Oil & Gas industry. Experiments have been performed to determine whether or not currently available technologies fulfill these requirements. The conclusion of this work is that an open, and energy-efficient, standard is needed before WSNs can be fully utilized in the Oil & Gas industry.