We consider hierarchical optical networks with different granularities of paths (wavelengths and wavebands). We introduce classification layers for routing models in these networks (separated and integrated routing, homogeneous and heterogeneous networks, online and offline routing). We also propose and analyze two heuristic routing and aggregation algorithms (online and offline) to be used for homogeneous networks in the separate routing framework. The analysis is based on ring topology; its results are supported by simulations of large scale networks (Europe and USA). These simulations demonstrate a significant cost reduction achieved by employing hierarchical routing (from 33% in the online algorithm to almost 60% in the offline one).

Powerful commodity systems and networks offer a promising direction for high performance computing because they are inexpensive and they closely track technology progress. However, high, raw-hardware performance is rarely delivered to the end user. Previous work has shown that the bottleneck in these architectures is the overheads imposed by the software communication layer. To reduce these overheads, researchers have proposed a number of user-space communication models. The common feature of these models is that applications have direct access to the network, bypassing the operating system in the common case and thus avoiding the cost of send/receive system calls. In this paper we examine five user-space communication layers, that represent different points in the configuration space: Generic AM, BIP-0.92, FM-2.02, PM-1.2, and VMMC-2. Although these systems support different communication paradigms and employ a variety of different implementation tradeoffs, we are able to quantitatively compare them on a single testbed consisting of a cluster of high-end PCs connected by a Myrinet network. We find that all five communication systems have very low latency for small messages, in the range of 5 to 17 s. Not surprisingly, this range is strongly influenced by the functionality offered by each system. We are encouraged, however, to find that features such as protected and reliable communication at user level and multiprogramming can be provided at very low cost. Bandwidth, however, depends primarily on how data is transferred between host memory and the network. Most of the investigated libraries support zero-copy protocols for certain types of data transfers, but differ significantly in the bandwidth delivered to end users. The highest bandwidth, between 95 and 125 MBytes/s for long message transfers, is delivered by libraries that use DMA on both send and receive sides and avoid all data copies. Libraries that perform additional data copies or use programmed I/O to send data to the network achieve lower maximum bandwidth, in the range of 60-70 MBytes/s.