Crowdsourcing enables the completion of large-scale and hard-to-automate tasks, while allowing people to earn money. However, 3.6 billion people – a workforce comprising 46.4% of the world population – who could benefit most from this source of income lack the access and literacy to use computers, smartphones, and the internet. In this paper we present Karamad, a voice-based crowdsourcing platform that allows workers in low-resource regions to complete crowd work using low-end phones and receive payments as mobile airtime balance. We explore the usefulness, scalability, and sustainability of Karamad in Pakistan through a 6-month deployment. Without any advertising, training, or airtime subsidies, Karamad organically engaged 725 workers who completed 3,939 tasks (involving 43,006 components) including translations, dataset generation, and surveys on demographics, accessibility, disability, health, employment, and literacy. Collectively, the workers produced a valuable service market for potential customers and included female, unemployed, non-literate, and blind users.

Information and Communication Technology interventions have the potential to improve outcomes in health and other development sectors in low-income settings. Large-scale impact, however, remains the central challenge for the HCI4D community as significant and diverse resources are typically required to scale such interventions beyond the pilot stage. In contrast, voice-based entertainment services accessible over simple phones, designed for similarly low-income, low-literate populations manage to scale 'virally' to tens of thousands of users with little to no advertising cost. Our study compares the outcomes of using voice-based entertainment to spread a maternal-health hotline against conventional advertisement channels including paper flyers, posters, radio, TV, social media and robocalls. Through an 11-week deployment in Pakistan where the hotline reached 21,770 users over 32,625 calls, we find that the entertainment service outperformed other channels on all popular user acquisition metrics, with the exception of robocalls, which lead in terms of spread.

People in South Asia frequently share a single device among multiple individuals, resulting in digital privacy challenges. This paper explores a design concept that aims to mitigate some of these challenges through a 'tiered' privacy model. Using this model, a person creates a 'shared' account that contains data they are willing to share and that is assigned a password that will be shared. Simultaneously, they create a separate 'secret' account that contains data they prefer to keep secret and that uses a password they do not share with anyone. When a friend or family member asks to check their device, the user can tell them the password for their shared account, with their private data secure in the secret account that the other person is unaware of. We explore the benefits and trade-offs of our design through a three-week deployment with 21 participants in Bangladesh, presenting findings that show how our work aids digital privacy while also exposing the challenges that remain.

Despite increasing mobile Internet penetration in emerging regions, the growth of web page complexity combined with inadequate content delivery mechanisms and lack of relevant local content make the web experience poor for users in these regions. In this paper, we propose GAIUS, a content ecosystem that enables the efficient creation and dissemination of locally relevant web content. GAIUS aims at creating a community content exchange that enables users to easily create and consume relevant web content with the help of a mobile application. Based on an early deployment of GAIUS in various regions, we show that our ecosystem enables localized content creation and diffusion efficiently.

Marketplaces are rich sites for studying existing practices surrounding technology adoption, as well as for understanding how the entry of new technologies impact a diversity of social-economic groups. With the high-profile entry of e-commerce companies into the Indian retail scene, this paper seeks to understand the ways in which online shopping integrates into the everyday practices of shoppers. Using semi-structured qualitative interviews with shoppers in marketplaces at Bangalore, India and through the lens of domestication theory, we examine how the relationship between online shopping and shoppers is constructed. Beyond individual agency, this paper describes how institutional, infrastructural, and cultural forces shape the use and non-use of online marketplaces. By specifically studying non-use, we improve our understanding of the shortcomings of existing sites where technologies are encountered and of the potential considerations for future introductions of new ICTs.

Rural areas are home to 45% of the world's population and are neglected in the design and deployment of broadband Internet access. Beyond establishing connectivity, the planning and design of networks in these areas is often challenging because the complexity of planning such networks often exceeds the knowledge and practical expertise of individuals -- even individuals that are experts in this field. Yet, proper planning and efficient network designs are critical to the long term viability and scalability of such networks. In this paper, we highlight the challenges that lone operators who lack sufficient technical support and tools must face when designing and deploying their networks. We then present a network planning tool, Zyxt, that aims to help individuals in planning rural wireless networks. We describe the design and implementation of our prototype and evaluate it against synthetic and real-world planning problems. Our evaluation demonstrates that Zyxt is able to solve real-world network planning problems using relatively modest computing resources within a few hours.

In this paper, we examine riverbank erosion in Bangladesh, a crisis that affects millions of people, but has largely been overlooked in the ICT4D and crisis informatics literature. Through a two-month field study in four districts of Bangladesh, we explored how people managed the impacts of erosion. Our study reveals that riverbank erosion resulted in material loss, forced migration, and social displacement. Victims faced many challenges but received little institutional support. We combined the ethnographic field study with an online social media study to present a holistic picture of the activities of crisis response. In the field sites, we observed that ICT use was limited to phone calls because the internet was inaccessible. However, our analysis of online social media activity in two nearby regions revealed strong Facebook activism. Activists used Facebook to raise public awareness about riverbank erosion and push for political change.

While neuroevolution (evolving neural networks) has been successful across a variety of domains from reinforcement learning, to artificial life, to evolutionary robotics, it is rarely applied to large, deep neural networks. A central reason is that while random mutation generally works in low dimensions, a random perturbation of thousands or millions of weights will likely break existing functionality. This paper proposes a solution: a family of safe mutation (SM) operators that facilitate exploration without dramatically altering network behavior or requiring additional interaction with the environment. The most effective SM variant scales the degree of mutation of each individual weight according to the sensitivity of the network's outputs to that weight, which requires computing the gradient of outputs with respect to the weights (instead of the gradient of error, as in conventional deep learning). This safe mutation through gradients (SM-G) operator dramatically increases the ability of a simple genetic algorithm-based neuroevolution method to find solutions in high-dimensional domains that require deep and/or recurrent neural networks, including domains that require processing raw pixels. By improving our ability to evolve deep neural networks, this new safer approach to mutation expands the scope of domains amenable to neuroevolution.

An evolution strategy (ES) variant based on a simplification of a natural evolution strategy recently attracted attention because it performs surprisingly well in challenging deep reinforcement learning domains. It searches for neural network parameters by generating perturbations to the current set of parameters, checking their performance, and moving in the aggregate direction of higher reward. Because it resembles a traditional finite-difference approximation of the reward gradient, it can naturally be confused with one. However, this ES optimizes for a different gradient than just reward: It optimizes for the average reward of the entire population, thereby seeking parameters that are robust to perturbation. This difference can channel ES into distinct areas of the search space relative to gradient descent, and also consequently to networks with distinct properties. This unique robustness-seeking property, and its consequences for optimization, are demonstrated in several domains. They include humanoid locomotion, where networks from policy gradient-based reinforcement learning are significantly less robust to parameter perturbation than ES-based policies solving the same task. While the implications of such robustness and robustness-seeking remain open to further study this work's main contribution is to highlight such differences and their potential importance.

This paper describes a complex global sales and logistics network based in Phnom Penh, Cambodia, which utilizes Internet tools (particularly Facebook) as well as a suite of offline tools such as feature phones, paper receipts, and motorcycles to facilitate the buying and selling of clothes and other commodities. Against the gap or import models that sometimes limit HCI understandings of computational change in non-Western environments, we argue that the consumers, business owners, delivery drivers, and call center staff play active and formative roles in producing this infrastructure, integrating new tools into older cultural practices and determining how they work within the limits and conventions of the environment. We argue that resourceful and imaginative activities such as these constitute a form of creative infrastructural action and are central to the ways that new tools circulate in the world, though they often go unrecognized by HCI as innovation.

Religious institutions hold a significant place in daily life for the vast majority of people in the world, especially in developing countries. Yet despite their social prominence, and despite HCI's emphasis on the social context of technology, organized religion is neglected in both the HCI and ICTD literature. This paper explores the relationship that mosques in Bangladesh have with their constituencies and with technology, with an eye toward the integration of technology with existing religious institutions as a way to achieve positive social ends. We first describe a qualitative exploration of several mosque communities in Bangladesh, where we find that skepticism and pragmatism about modern technology interact in a complex way that nevertheless leaves room for technical interventions. We then describe a randomized controlled trial to study the relative value of SMS messages infused with overtly religious or secularly altruistic frames for the purpose of mosque fundraising. We find that SMS messages increase donations overall, but that their framing is significant. Messages with secular altruistic framing increased donations by 9.5%, while those with religious sentiment increased donations by 57.3%. Our findings demonstrate how technologies like SMS amplify underlying religious forces and suggest the possibility of working with religious institutions in applying positive ICT interventions.

Today's Internet scarcely resembles the mythological image of it as a fundamentally democratic system. Instead, users are at the whims of a small number of providers who control nearly everything about users' experiences on the Internet. In response, researchers and engineers have proposed, over the past decade, many systems to re-democratize the Internet, pushing control over data and systems back to the users. Yet nearly all such projects have failed. In this paper we explore why: what are the goals of such systems and what has caused them to run aground?

End-users in emerging markets experience poor web performance due to a combination of three factors: high server response time, limited edge bandwidth and the complexity of web pages. The absence of cloud infrastructure in developing regions and the limited bandwidth experienced by edge nodes constrain the effectiveness of conventional caching solutions for these contexts. This paper describes the design, implementation and deployment of xCache, a cloud-managed Internet caching architecture that aims to proactively profile popular web pages and maintain the liveness of popular content at software defined edge caches to enhance the cache hit rate with minimal bandwidth overhead. xCache uses a Cloud Controller that continuously analyzes active cloud-managed web pages and derives an object-group representation of web pages based on the objects of a page. Using this object-group representation, xCache computes a bandwidth-aware utility measure to derive the most valuable configuration for each edge cache. Our preliminary real-world deployment across university campuses in three developing regions demonstrates its potential compared to conventional caching by improving cache hit rates by about 15%. Our evaluations of xCache have also shown that it can be applied in conjunction with other web optimizations solutions like Shandian, and can improve page load times by more than 50%.

Prior research on technology use in the Global South suggests that people in marginalized communities frequently share a single device among multiple individuals. However, the data privacy challenges and tensions that arise when people share devices have not been studied in depth. This paper presents a qualitative study with 72 participants that analyzes how families in Bangladesh currently share mobile phones, their usage patterns, and the tensions and challenges that arise as individuals seek to protect the privacy of their personal data. We show how people share devices out of economic need, but also because sharing is a social and cultural practice that is deeply embedded in Bangladeshi society. We also discuss how prevalent power relationships affect sharing practices and reveal gender dynamics that impact the privacy of women's data. Finally, we highlight strategies that participants adopted to protect their private data from the people with whom they share devices. Taken together, our findings have broad implications that advance the CSCW community's understanding of digital privacy outside the Western world.

Face-to-face social interactions among strangers today are becoming increasingly rare as people turn towards computer-mediated networking tools. Today's tools, however, are based on the following assumptions: increased information encourages interaction, profiles are good representations of users to other users, and computer-mediated communications prior to face-to-face meetings lead to better outcomes. This paper describes CommonTies, a gentle technological in the form of a wearable accessory, that encourages immediate, face-to-face, organic social interactions among strangers at conferences. By not exposing any profile information, CommonTies preserves an element of mystery and enables self-disclosure of information through conversation. We evaluate our system through a field study at a three-day research conference - CSCW 2014. We find that despite our information-scarce design, users were willing to interact with strangers and 74% of the interactions initiated by CommonTies were reported as novel and useful.

While the networking literature is replete with work on managing and operating networks---from the specifics of protocols to the design of management tools and architectures---there is comparatively little work on planning a network to be rolled out. In part this is because the task of network planning typically falls to carriers (for backbones) and cloud providers (for datacenters), which have the resources and the control to meet their specific needs. Here we consider network planning in situations that are quite different: resource poor and highly constrained.

Despite the recent push toward using information and communication technologies (ICTs) to replace paper-based workflows, there remain many barriers to designing appropriate and deployable ICT solutions that replace paper. As a result, paper tools such as forms, charts, and graphs continue to be widely used, especially in developing regions. While paper is not without its drawbacks, its advantages are especially relevant to low-resource settings as paper tools require only a fraction of the development, deployment, and operational costs of software apps. In this paper, we investigate how paper tools can be improved and combined with ICTs so that low-resource organizations working in developing regions can benefit from the advantages of both types of tools. We perform an exploration of existing tools to design, printr, a system that integrates into existing paper-based workflows by allowing an organization to rapidly generate paper tools that can perform some functions typically associated with computation---addition, subtraction, lookup, visual feedback, and visualization --- without requiring the introduction of an ICT at the point of use. We compare two paper tools that printr produces with two mobile phone apps developed by a large NGO in Ghana and find comparable user performance between apps and generated paper tools.

During the first decade of the 21st century, the rise of mobile feature phones in India saw the development of both an economy of informal media exchange and a culture of active media sharing for entertainment. Mobile phone owners paid for pirated movies and music on the grey market, and they traded them with one another, even using poorly designed mechanisms such as Bluetooth file exchange.

Garbage is an endemic problem in developing cities due to the continual influx of migrants from rural areas coupled with deficient municipal capacity planning. In cities like Dhaka, open waste dumps contribute to the prevalence of disease, environmental contamination, catastrophic flooding, and deadly fires. Recent interest in the garbage problem has prompted cursory proposals to introduce technology solutions for mapping and fundraising. Yet, the role of technology and its potential benefits are unexplored in this large-scale problem. In this paper, we contribute to the understanding of the waste ecology in Dhaka and how the various actors acquire, perform, negotiate, and coordinate their roles. Within this context, we explore design opportunities for using computing technologies to support collaboration between waste pickers and residents of these communities. We find opportunities in the presence of technology and the absence of mechanisms to facilitate coordination of community funding and crowd work.

Increasing cyber-security presents an ongoing challenge to security professionals. Research continuously suggests that online users are a weak link in information security. This research explores the relationship between cyber-security and cultural, personality and demographic variables.

Forgetting, losing, or corrupting data is almost universally considered harmful in computer science and blasphemous in database and file systems. Typically, loss of data is a consequence of unmanageable or unexpected lower layer deficiencies that the user process must be protected from through multiple layers of storage abstractions and redundancies. We argue that forgetfulness can be a resource for system design and that, like durability, security or integrity, can be used to achieve uncommon, but potentially important goals such as privacy, plausible deniability, and the right to be forgotten. We define the key properties of forgetfulness and draw inspiration from human memory. We develop a data structure, the forgit, that can be used to store images, audio files, videos or numerical data and eventually forget. Forgits are a natural data store for a multitude of today's cloud-based applications and we discuss their use, effectiveness, and limitations in this paper.

Paper as a medium persists as the de facto standard for information collection, storage, and transfer in many low-resource developing contexts. Of these contexts, the microfinance industry continues to be fascinating in the ongoing ICTD conversation due, in part, to its elimination of paper by digitizing money transfers using mobile banking. This success invites scholars, designers, and industry practitioners to design technology solutions to eliminate the perceived inefficiencies of paper in microfinance and other industries. In this work, we take a step back to assess the role and value of paper in order to give designers pause when considering a blanket digitization of existing processes, norms, and transactions. Specifically, we study a microfinance ecosystem in the city of Tema in Ghana and find that paper passbooks are able to deliver valuable context-specific information to its owners that derive from the specific affordances of paper itself. Our findings encourage a more nuanced view of paper's place in microfinance, and consequently, in similar low-resource settings.

Modern web pages are very complex; each web page consists of hundreds of objects that are linked from various servers all over the world. While mechanisms such as caching reduce the overall number of end-to-end requests saving bandwidth and loading time, there is still a large portion of content that is re-fetched -- despite not having changed. In this demo, we present Extreme Cache, a web caching architecture that enhances the web browsing experience through a smart pre-fetching engine. Our extreme cache tries to predict the rate of change of web page objects to bring cacheable content closer to the user.

Legacy congestion controls including TCP and its variants are known to perform poorly over cellular networks due to highly variable capacities over short time scales, self-inflicted packet delays, and packet losses unrelated to congestion. To cope with these challenges, we present Verus, an end-to-end congestion control protocol that uses delay measurements to react quickly to the capacity changes in cellular networks without explicitly attempting to predict the cellular channel dynamics. The key idea of Verus is to continuously learn a delay profile that captures the relationship between end-to-end packet delay and outstanding window size over short epochs and uses this relationship to increment or decrement the window size based on the observed short-term packet delay variations. While the delay-based control is primarily for congestion avoidance, Verus uses standard TCP features including multiplicative decrease upon packet loss and slow start. Through a combination of simulations, empirical evaluations using cellular network traces, and real-world evaluations against standard TCP flavors and state of the art protocols like Sprout, we show that Verus outperforms these protocols in cellular channels. In comparison to TCP Cubic, Verus achieves an order of magnitude (> 10x) reduction in delay over 3G and LTE networks while achieving comparable throughput (sometimes marginally higher). In comparison to Sprout, Verus achieves up to 30% higher throughput in rapidly changing cellular networks.

Crowdfunding websites like Kickstarter and Indiegogo offer project organizers the ability to market, fund, and build a community around their campaign. While offering support and flexibility for organizers, crowdfunding sites provide very little control to donors. In this paper, we investigate the idea of empowering donors by allowing them to specify conditions for their crowdfunding contributions. We introduce a crowdfunding system, Codo, that allows donors to specify conditional donations. Codo allow donors to contribute to a campaign but hold off on their contribution until certain specific conditions are met (e.g. specific members or groups contribute a certain amount). We begin with a micro study to assess several specific conditional donations based on their comprehensibility and usage likelihood. Based on this study, we formalize conditional donations into a general grammar that captures a broad set of useful conditions. We demonstrate the feasibility of resolving conditions in our grammar by elegantly transforming conditional donations into a system of linear inequalities that are efficiently resolved using off-the-shelf linear program solvers. Finally, we designed a user-friendly crowdfunding interface that supports conditional donations for an actual fund raising campaign and assess the potential of conditional donations through this campaign. We find preliminary evidence that roughly 1 in 3 donors make conditional donations and that conditional donors donate more compared to direct donors.

TCP congestion control algorithms implicitly assume that the per-flow throughput is at least a few packets per round trip time. Environments where this assumption does not hold, which we refer to as small packet regimes, are common in the contexts of wired and cellular networks in developing regions. In this paper we show that in small packet regimes TCP flows experience severe unfairness, high packet loss rates, and flow silences due to repetitive timeouts. We propose an approximate Markov model to describe TCP behavior in small packet regimes to characterize the TCP breakdown region that leads to repetitive timeout behavior. To enhance TCP performance in such regimes, we propose Timeout Aware Queuing (TAQ), a readily deployable in-network middlebox approach that uses a multi-level adaptive priority queuing algorithm to reduce the probability of timeouts, improve fairness and performance predictability. We demonstrate the effectiveness of TAQ across a spectrum of small packet regime network conditions using simulations, a prototype implementation, and testbed experiments.

Web access is prohibitively slow in many developing regions despite substantial effort to increase bandwidth and network penetration. In this paper, we explore the fundamental bottlenecks that cause poor web performance from a client's perspective by carefully dissecting webpage load latency contributors in Ghana. Based on our measurements from 2012 to 2014, we find several interesting issues that arise due to the increasing complexity of web pages and number of server redirections required to completely render the assets of a page. We observe that, rather than bandwidth, the primary bottleneck of web performance in Ghana is the lack of good DNS servers and caching infrastructure. The main bottlenecks are: (a) Recursive DNS query resolutions; (b) HTTP redirections; (c) TLS/SSL handshakes. We experiment with a range of well-known end-to-end latency optimizations and find that simple DNS caching, redirection caching, and the use of SPDY can all yield substantial improvements to user-perceived latency.

The quality of Internet connections around the world is extremely varied and very poor in rural areas despite high enthusiasm and investment of resources in computers. This study focuses on Internet users at schools and Internet cafés in rural Ghana. We wished to explore whether there were challenges to Internet use in addition to the poor connection quality itself. In our study we found that beyond connectivity, the lack of computer knowledge, poor usability of web interfaces, and "foreignization" of technology compounded the problem. To improve web access in these contexts, we designed TroTro, a browsing system that maintains a usable experience despite fluctuating connectivity and a wide range of user expertise. We followed web usability heuristics in our design and our results show evidence that our system allows both novice and expert computer users to enhance their individual web experience, explore content across different kinds of network conditions, and share resources within their community.

Many network links in developing regions operate in the sub-packet regime, an environment where the typical per-flow throughput is less than 1 packet per round-trip time. TCP and other common congestion control protocols break down in the sub-packet regime, resulting in severe unfairness, high packet loss rates, and flow silences due to repetitive timeouts. To understand TCP's behavior in this regime, we propose a model particularly tailored to high packet loss-rates and relatively small congestion window sizes. We validate the model under a variety of network conditions.

Short Messaging Service (SMS) based mobile information services have become increasingly common around the world, especially in emerging regions among users with low-end mobile devices. This paper presents the design and implementation of SMSFind, an SMS-based search system that enables users to obtain extremely concise (one SMS) message of 140 bytes) and appropriate search responses for queries across arbitrary topics in one round of interaction. SMSFind is designed to complement existing SMS-based search services that are either limited in the topics they recognize or involve a human in the loop.

While the cellular revolution has made voice connectivity ubiquitous in the developing world, data services are largely absent or are prohibitively expensive. In this paper, we present Hermes1, a point-to-point data connectivity solution that works by modulating data onto acoustic signals that are sent over a cellular voice call. The main challenge is that most voice codecs greatly distort signals that are not voice-like; furthermore, the backhaul can be highly heterogeneous and of low quality, thereby introducing unpredictable distortions. Hermes modulates data over the extremely narrow-band approximately 3kHz bandwidth) acoustic carrier, while being severely constrained by the requirement that the resulting sound signals are voice-like, as far as the voice codecs are concerned. Hermes uses a robust data transcoding and modulation scheme to detect and correct errors in the face of bit flips, insertions and deletions; it also adapts the modulation parameters to the observed bit error rate on the actual voice channel. Through real-world experiments, we show that Hermes achieves approximately 1.2 kbps goodput which when compared to SMS, improves throughput by a factor of 5× and reduces the cost-per-byte by over a factor of 50x

Web search and browsing have been streamlined for a comfortable experience when the network connection is fast. Existing systems, however, are not optimized for scenarios where connectivity is poor, as is the case for many users in developing regions where fast connections are expensive, rare, or unavailable. We examined the challenges faced by users behind one of these connections in a previous study, and found that the existing web interface is incapable of providing a good experience when the connection is extremely slow. In this demonstration we present a prototype implementation of a web browsing system that incorporates what we learned. Our system helps the users search offline as much as possible, and in a single search query when information from the Internet is required.

Cell phones are increasingly being used as common clients for a wide suite of distributed, database-centric healthcare applications in developing regions. This is particularly true for rural developing regions where the bulk of the healthcare is handled by health workers due to lack of doctors; the widespread availability of cellular services have made mobile devices as an important computing platform for enabling healthcare applications for these health workers. Unfortunately, the current SQL model for distributed client/server systems is far too heavy-weight for these applications, particularly in light of the high communications cost and extremely limited data transmission capacity available in these environments.

The majority of people in rural developing regions do not have access to the World Wide Web. Traditional network connectivity technologies have proven to be prohibitively expensive in these areas. The emergence of new long-range wireless technologies provide hope for connecting these rural regions to the Internet. However, the network connectivity provided by these new solutions are by nature intermittent due to high network usage rates, frequent power-cuts and the use of delay tolerant links. Typical applications, especially interactive applications like web search, do not tolerate intermittent connectivity. In this paper, we present the design and implementation of RuralCafe, a system intended to support efficient web search over intermittent networks. RuralCafe enables users to perform web search asynchronously and find what they are looking for in one round of intermittency as opposed to multiple rounds of search/downloads. RuralCafe does this by providing an expanded search query interface which allows a user to specify additional query terms to maximize the utility of the results returned by a search query. Given knowledge of the limited available network resources, RuralCafe performs optimizations to prefetch pages to best satisfy a search query based on a user's search preferences. In addition, RuralCafe does not require modifications to the web browser, and can provide single round search results tailored to various types of networks and economic constraints. We have implemented and evaluated the effectiveness of RuralCafe using queries from logs made to a large search engine, queries made by users in an intermittent setting, and live queries from a small testbed deployment. We have also deployed a prototype of RuralCafe in Kerala, India.

The rapid evolution of large-scale worms, viruses and bot-nets have made Internet malware a pressing concern. Such infections are at the root of modern scourges including DDoS extortion, on-line identity theft, SPAM, phishing, and piracy. However, the most widely used tools for gathering intelligence on new malware -- network honeypots -- have forced investigators to choose between monitoring activity at a large scale or capturing behavior with high fidelity. In this paper, we describe an approach to minimize this tension and improve honeypot scalability by up to six orders of magnitude while still closely emulating the execution behavior of individual Internet hosts. We have built a prototype honeyfarm system, called Potemkin, that exploits virtual machines, aggressive memory sharing, and late binding of resources to achieve this goal. While still an immature implementation, Potemkin has emulated over 64,000 Internet honeypots in live test runs, using only a handful of physical servers.